Michael Brooks
The Catholic Reformation, also known as the Counter-Reformation, was a period of Catholic resurgence that was initiated in response to the Protestant Reformation. The most commonly used starting date is 31 October 1517, when German theologian Martin Luther posted his Ninety-Five Theses, which criticised indulgences and papal power. The Catholic Church responded to these criticisms with a vigorous campaign of reform, inspired by earlier Catholic reform movements such as humanism, devotionalism, and observantism. The Council of Trent, which took place between 1545 and 1563, was a key part of these reforms, as it attempted to improve the discipline and administration of the Church.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Date | The commonly used starting date is 31 October 1517. |
| Place | Western Europe |
| People | Martin Luther, Pope Leo X, Pope Paul III, Pope Julius III, Pope Paul IV, Ignatius of Loyola, Vincent de Paul, Louise de Marillac, Henri Daniel-Rops, Massimo Firpo, Philip Melanchthon, Ulrich Zwingli, John Calvin, and many more. |
| Events | Martin Luther allegedly nails his Ninety-Five Theses to the door of Castle Church in Wittenberg, Saxony. Pope Leo X responds with a campaign of indulgences. The Council of Trent meets periodically between 1545 and 1563. Pope Paul III approves the Inquisition in 1542. The Oratory of Divine Love is founded in Rome in 1514. The Sisters of Charity is founded in 1633. |
| Causes/Ideology | A desire to reform the Catholic Church, which was seen as corrupt and in need of renewal. A response to the Protestant Reformation and an attempt to recover schismatic branches of Western Christianity. |
| Results | The Catholic Church was reformed and renewed, with a focus on missionary work and education. Catholic piety was revived, and the Church maintained its relevance in an increasingly secular and Protestant world. |
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What You'll Learn
Martin Luther's 95 Theses
The Catholic Reformation, also known as the Counter-Reformation, was a period of Catholic resurgence in response to the Protestant Reformation. The Protestant Reformation was sparked by Martin Luther's 95 Theses, which were written in 1517.
Martin Luther (1483-1546) was a German priest, monk, and professor of moral theology at the University of Wittenberg, Germany. Luther's 95 Theses were written in response to the contemporary practice of the Roman Catholic Church with respect to indulgences. Indulgences were certificates sold by the Catholic Church that were supposed to reduce the temporal punishment for sins committed by the purchaser or their loved ones in purgatory. Luther saw this practice as an abuse of power and corruption by the Catholic clergy.
In his 95 Theses, Luther argued that repentance required by Christ for the forgiveness of sins involves inner spiritual repentance rather than mere external sacramental confession. He also stated that giving to the poor is more important than buying indulgences, and that doing good works makes a person better while buying indulgences does not. Luther further criticized the doctrine of the treasury of merit, on which the doctrine of indulgences is based.
The 95 Theses were quickly reprinted, translated, and distributed throughout Germany and Europe, initiating a pamphlet war with the indulgence preacher Johann Tetzel. Luther's ecclesiastical superiors tried him for heresy, which led to his excommunication in 1521. However, the 95 Theses are retrospectively considered to have launched the Protestant Reformation and the birth of Protestantism, despite various proto-Protestant groups having existed previously.
The Catholic Church responded to the Reformation with a vigorous campaign of reform, inspired by earlier Catholic reform movements such as humanism, devotionalism, and observantism. The Council of Trent, initiated by Pope Paul III, worked to improve the discipline and administration of the Church, repudiating the pluralism of the secular Renaissance that had plagued the Church.
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The Council of Trent
The council was highly important for its sweeping decrees on self-reform and its dogmatic definitions, which clarified virtually every doctrine contested by the Protestants. It also clarified many issues about which there had been ambiguity throughout the early church and the Middle Ages, including the precise number and nature of the sacraments, the veneration of saints and relics, purgatory, the authority of the pope, and the use of indulgences. The council also established specific prescriptions about the form of the mass and liturgical music.
The council declared that Christ is really and physically present in communion, in contrast to most Protestants, except for Martin Luther, who believed that the presence of Christ in the ritual is merely symbolic. The council also officially affirmed the traditional Catholic Canon of biblical books, which was identical to the canon of Scripture issued by the Council of Rome under Pope Damasus in 382. This was in response to the increasing Protestant exclusion of the deuterocanonical books.
The council's impact on Roman Catholic doctrine was significant, as it also reformed the internal life and discipline of the church. Two of its most far-reaching provisions were the requirement that every diocese provide for the proper education of its future clergy in Catholic seminaries and the requirement that the clergy, especially bishops, pay more attention to the task of preaching. Financial abuses were brought under control, and strict rules requiring the residency of bishops in their dioceses were established.
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The Holy Office/Inquisition
The Inquisition was a Catholic judicial procedure where ecclesiastical judges could initiate, investigate and try cases in their jurisdiction. It was a system of partisan tribunals responsible for prosecuting individuals accused of a wide array of crimes according to Catholic law and doctrine. The Inquisition is often broken down into its distinct branches, notably the Spanish, Portuguese, and Roman (or Italian) Inquisitions.
The Holy Inquisition was a significant institution within the Catholic Church, established primarily to investigate and eradicate heresy or beliefs that deviated from official Church doctrine. The Inquisition concerned itself with the heretical behaviour of Catholic adherents or converts (including forced converts). The main function of the institution was to maintain and implement papal bulls and other church rulings, in addition to their function of administering legalistic ramifications upon deviants of Catholic orthodoxy. The Holy Inquisition is often viewed negatively, with popular culture perpetuating the idea that it was a centralized, all-powerful organization acting on behalf of the Pope. However, some Catholics argue that this is a misrepresentation and that the Holy Inquisition has been misunderstood by the modern world.
The Roman Inquisition, formally the Suprema Congregatio Sanctae Romanae et Universalis Inquisitionis (Latin for 'the Supreme Sacred Congregation of the Roman and Universal Inquisition'), was established in 1542 by Pope Paul III. It was meant to combat the spread of Protestantism in Europe in the wake of the Reformation. The Roman Inquisition is considered the mildest of the Inquisitions. The Portuguese Inquisition began in 1536, and the Spanish Inquisition is known as the most violent offshoot of the Holy Inquisition.
The methods of the Inquisition evolved over time, with initial efforts transitioning to systematic investigations characterized by periods of grace for confessions and often brutal interrogations. Violence, isolation, torture, or the threat of its application, were used by the Inquisition to extract confessions and denunciations. Studies of the records have found that the overwhelming majority of sentences consisted of penances, but convictions of unrepentant heresy were handed over to the secular courts for the application of local law, which generally resulted in execution or life imprisonment. The Inquisition in Malta (1561 to 1798) is generally considered to have been gentler. Italian historian Andrea Del Col estimates that out of 51,000–75,000 cases judged by the Inquisition in Italy after 1542, around 1,250 resulted in a death sentence.
In 1908, Pope Pius X renamed the Roman Inquisition the Congregation of the Holy Office. In 1965, it became the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, which is today called the Dicastery for the Doctrine of the Faith, as retained to the present day.
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The Jesuits
The Catholic Reformation, also known as the Counter-Reformation, was a period of Catholic resurgence that arose in response to the Protestant Reformation. It was an attempt to reform the Catholic Church and win back the parts of Europe that had become Protestant. The Jesuits, or the Society of Jesus, were a pivotal order of priests within this movement.
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Missionary work
The Catholic Reformation, also called the Counter-Reformation, was a period of Catholic resurgence in response to the Protestant Reformation. It was initiated by the Council of Trent, which took place from 1545 to 1563. The Council's focus was on institutional reform and addressing the issues within the Catholic Church.
During the Catholic Reformation, missionary work took on a new vigour, with a particular focus on reaching parts of the world that had been colonized as predominantly Catholic and reconverting nations that had once been Catholic but had been lost to the Reformation, such as Sweden and England. This period saw an explosion of missions and missionaries, with individuals and societies dedicated to evangelizing non-European countries.
In the 16th and 17th centuries, missionaries like Xavier and Ricci ventured beyond Europe to spread the Gospel. They were followed by members of various Catholic orders, including Franciscans, Dominicans, and Jesuits, who established missions in newly explored territories. These missionaries often worked under the sponsorship and consent of colonial powers such as Portugal and Spain, whose colonial policies were sometimes challenged by the Catholic Church itself.
In Asia, Jesuit missions to China and Japan were particularly notable. In China, Jesuits like Matteo Ricci and Roberto de Nobili sought to find common ground between Christianity and local beliefs, causing some tension with the Church. In Japan, Catholic missionary activities began in earnest around 1549, led primarily by Portuguese-sponsored Jesuits.
In the Americas, the Catholic missionary efforts were closely tied to military conquest, particularly in Mexico and South America. The indigenous and mestizo populations often blended traditional and Christian beliefs, considering themselves Roman Catholics. The best-known example of this syncretism is the Aztec convert, St. Juan Diego, whose visions of the Virgin Mary contributed to the conversion of Mexico.
The Catholic Missionary Movement of the 19th century saw the Church expand further into other areas of the globe. This period was marked by the establishment of new missionary orders and societies, such as the Society of the Divine Word and the Catholic Foreign Missionary Society of North America. Pope Leo XIII played a significant role in this expansion, believing that engaging with the modern world was crucial for bringing the Gospel to mankind.
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Frequently asked questions
The Catholic Reformation, also known as the Counter-Reformation, was a period of Catholic resurgence that took place during the 16th and early 17th centuries. It was initiated in response to the Protestant Reformation and aimed to reform the Catholic Church itself.
The Catholic Reformation is believed to have begun in 1517 when Martin Luther posted his 95 Theses, although some historians argue that it started as early as 1516 when the Swiss priest Huldrych Zwingli first preached against abuses in the Church.
The main cause of the Catholic Reformation was the need to address the abuses and problems within the Catholic Church that had inspired the Protestant Reformation, such as the sale of indulgences for the remission of sin and the authority of the pope.
During the Catholic Reformation, the Church clarified and refined various aspects of doctrine, ecclesiastical structures, new religious orders, and Catholic spirituality. The Jesuits, for example, established numerous schools and universities throughout Europe to promote Catholic education and help maintain the relevance of the Catholic Church in increasingly secular and Protestant societies.
