Grace Thompson
Catholics in China have faced persecution and conflict with the state for centuries. From the 19th century, when Catholic missionaries were expelled or killed, to the present day, where the Vatican has negotiated with Beijing to protect Chinese Catholics, the relationship between the Catholic Church and China has been fraught with difficulty. Despite the recent agreement, the treatment of Catholics in China remains a concern, with the government employing high-tech surveillance and restrictions on worship.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Number of Catholics in China | 12 million (AP News), 3 million (Catholic World Report) |
| Catholics as % of Christians in China | 10% (Pew Research Center), 33% (AP News) |
| Catholics as % of Chinese adults who believe in Jesus Christ and/or Tianzhu | 15% (Pew Research Center) |
| Catholics as % of Chinese adults who believe in Jesus Christ and/or Tianzhu and not in other non-Christian deities | 42.85% (Pew Research Center) |
| China's relationship with the Vatican | Tense, with the Vatican expressing disappointment and China viewing Catholicism with suspicion and distraction |
| Nature of Catholic churches in China | Divided between an official, state-controlled church that doesn't recognize papal authority and an underground church loyal to Rome |
| Surveillance measures | Cameras inside and outside churches, required registration of participants, biometric data collection |
| History of Catholic persecution in China | Catholic missionaries were expelled or strangled after distributing Christian books in 1835-6; Catholic preaching was forbidden in 1721 and most missionaries were deported in 1724; Catholic nuns and priests were forced to leave China in 1953 and many were arrested as "ideological saboteurs" |
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What You'll Learn
Catholic missionaries in China
Catholic missionaries have had a long and complex history in China, dating back to the 7th century. The earliest known influences of Christianity in China are detailed in the Nestorian Stele, which was buried and rediscovered centuries later. This Christian groundwork paved the way for the entry of Catholicism into China.
In the 13th century, missionary priests of the Latin Catholic Church, including Franciscan priests like John of Montecorvino, entered China. John of Montecorvino arrived in Beijing in 1294 and built a church there in 1299. By 1300, he had an estimated 6,000 to 30,000 converts.
In the 16th century, the Jesuits made attempts to reach China, led by figures such as St. Francis Xavier and Matteo Ricci. They introduced Western science, mathematics, astronomy, and visual arts to the Chinese imperial court and facilitated intercultural philosophical dialogue. The Jesuits played a significant role in the transmission of knowledge, science, and culture between China and the West.
However, Catholic missionary success in China has been described as a wave, with periods of crest and fall. One challenge faced by missionaries was integrating Catholic beliefs with existing Chinese ideologies, as Western Christian missionaries often disregarded Buddhism and Confucianism. Additionally, some missionaries failed to learn the Chinese language, hindering their ability to connect with the local population.
In the 18th century, the relationship between China and Catholicism deteriorated. Conflicts arose between the Qing emperor Kangxi and papal leadership over the acceptance of traditional Chinese rituals among Catholic converts. This led to the condemnation of Catholicism as heterodox and the deportation of Catholic missionaries by the Yongzheng Emperor in 1724.
In the 19th century, following the Opium Wars, treaties between Western powers and Chinese governments forced the lifting of restrictions on foreign access, including missionary activity, in certain Chinese coastal areas. This period saw a surge in missionary activity, but it was also met with protests, riots, and the destruction of mission properties.
Today, there are an estimated 12 million Catholics in China, divided between an official, state-controlled church that does not recognize papal authority and an underground church loyal to Rome. The Vatican has made efforts to unify the flock and heal divisions, but its agreements with China have been controversial, with some accusing it of caving to Beijing's demands.
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Catholic persecution in China
Christianity is believed to have entered China in the late 13th century, with the earliest being Franciscan missionaries. The Italian Franciscan priest John of Montecorvino arrived in Beijing in 1294 and built a church in 1299, with estimates of 6,000 to 30,000 converts by 1300. However, China's relationship with Catholicism has been fraught with tension and persecution over the centuries.
In 1721, the Qing emperor Kangxi forbade the preaching of Catholicism due to conflicts with papal leadership over the acceptance of traditional Chinese rituals among Catholic converts. His successor, Yongzheng, enforced the ban and condemned Catholicism as heterodox, ordering the deportation of most Catholic missionaries. During the Maoist era (1949-1976), Catholics in China faced brutal persecution, including the seizure of a Trappist monastery near Beijing in 1947 by communist soldiers, which resulted in the deaths of 33 monks.
In the 19th century, following the First Opium War (1839-1841), China was forced to permit foreign missionaries. However, the Kuomintang's 1926 National Congress endorsed an anti-Christian movement, labelling missionaries as "tongues and claws of imperialism." Protests, riots, and the destruction or looting of mission properties occurred, although actual conflict with Christian churches was avoided.
In the 20th century, especially after the Communist Party took power in 1949, China's Catholics became divided between an official, state-controlled church that didn't recognize papal authority and an underground church loyal to Rome. The state-controlled church was characterized by self-governance, self-support, and self-propagation, while the underground church faced decades of persecution. In 1953, non-Chinese Catholic priests and sisters were exiled from the country, and many were arrested as "ideological saboteurs."
In recent years, the Vatican has attempted to unify China's Catholics and improve relations with the Chinese government. The 2018 Sino-Vatican Agreement aimed to regularize the status of bishops and heal the division between the two groups of Catholics. However, the agreement has been controversial, with some criticizing it for caving to Beijing's demands and selling out the underground faithful. There are concerns that Beijing may appoint illegal bishops and further divide the Church if the agreement is not renewed. Additionally, high-tech surveillance, including cameras and biometric data collection, has been implemented in churches and other houses of worship, leading to conflicts between believers and authorities.
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Catholic resistance to Chinese communism
Historical Resistance
Historically, Catholic resistance to communism in China has been characterised by the conflict between the Catholic Church and the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) over the control of religious practices and the appointment of religious leaders. In 1950, the Holy See stated that participation in certain CCP-related organisations would result in excommunication from the Church. This led to initiatives such as Fr. Wang Liangzuo's "Guangyuan Declaration of Catholic Self-Reformation", which gained support from Chinese Catholics. However, the Chinese authorities arrested the apostolic nuncios, alleging collusion with American intelligence and false accusations of plotting to kill Mao Zedong.
Expulsion of Foreign Missionaries
In the 1950s, the Communist government systematically exiled foreign missionaries and non-Chinese Christian teachers from the country. Many Roman Catholic nuns and priests were forced to leave, while some were arrested as "ideological saboteurs". This was not the first time that Catholic missionaries had been expelled from China. After the British Empire's defeat of China in the First Opium War (1839-1841), China was required to permit foreign missionaries. However, after Protestant missionaries gave Christian books to Chinese citizens, the Daoguang Emperor demanded to know who the "traitorous natives" were, and the foreign missionaries were either strangled or expelled.
The Chinese Catholic Patriotic Association (CCPA)
In 1957, the Communist government established the Chinese Catholic Patriotic Association (CCPA) in Beijing, which rejected the authority of the Holy See and appointed its own bishops. The CCPA is part of the United Front Work Department of the Central Committee of the CCP and oversees the practice of the Catholic faith while also espousing politically oriented objectives. Clergy who resisted this development were subjected to oppression, including long imprisonment.
Underground Church
China's estimated 12 million Catholics have historically been divided between an official, state-controlled church that doesn't recognise papal authority and an underground church that remained loyal to Rome despite decades of persecution. This division has been a source of tension, with the Vatican attempting to unify the two groups and heal the rift. In 2018, a provisional agreement was reached between China and the Holy See, giving the Pope the power to veto any bishop recommended by the Chinese government. However, this deal has been criticised for caving to Beijing's demands and selling out the underground faithful.
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Sino-Vatican relations
In 1721, the Qing emperor Kangxi forbade the preaching of Catholicism due to conflicts with papal leadership over the acceptance of traditional Chinese rituals among Catholic converts. His successor, Yongzheng, enforced the ban and condemned Catholicism as heterodox, ordering the deportation of most Catholic missionaries. This marked a deterioration in China's relationship with Catholicism, which had previously tolerated the presence of missionaries in the country.
Following the British Empire's defeat of China in the First Opium War (1839-1841), China was forced to permit foreign missionaries, leading to a surge in missionary activity. However, the Kuomintang's 1926 National Congress in Canton endorsed the growing anti-Christian movement in China, labelling missionaries as "tongues and claws of imperialism". Protests and riots linked to the Nationalists frequently occurred, and several mission properties were destroyed or looted.
In the 20th century, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) openly professed its aim to eradicate religious faith and persecuted Christians, including Catholics. During the Maoist era (1949-1976), Catholic monks and missionaries were exiled from China, with many arrested as "ideological saboteurs". In 1954, Chinese Protestant leaders issued "The Christian Manifesto", which established the "Three-Self Patriotic Movement" (TSPM) and the "Three-Selfs" model for Chinese Christians: self-governance, self-support, and self-propagation.
In recent years, the Vatican has attempted to improve relations with China, with negotiations taking place as recently as 2018. The 2018 Sino-Vatican Agreement aimed to unify the estimated 12 million Catholics in China, who were divided between an official, state-controlled church that didn't recognize papal authority and an underground church loyal to Rome. However, the agreement has been controversial, with some arguing that it caved to Beijing's demands and sold out the underground faithful.
Despite the challenges, Chinese Catholics have persevered, and the number of Christians in China is estimated to be around 20 million, with Catholics making up the remainder after Protestants, who account for roughly 90% of Chinese Christians.
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Catholic churches in China
The history of Catholic churches in China is a long and complex one, dating back to the arrival of the earliest Christian missionaries during the Tang dynasty. These missionaries referred to their religion as Jǐngjiào or "bright teaching". Over time, Catholic missionaries coined the term Tiānzhǔ or "Lord of Heaven", which became the dominant usage. The Catholic Church first entered China during the cosmopolitan Tang dynasty era, but it wasn't until the 16th century Ming dynasty that it gained a significant number of native Chinese followers.
In the late 13th century, missionary priests of the Latin Catholic Church from Europe, mainly Franciscans, entered China. One such missionary, the Italian Franciscan priest John of Montecorvino, arrived in Beijing in 1294 and built the first church there in 1299. By 1305, he had built a second church opposite the imperial palace and had begun translating the New Testament and the Psalms into the local language. The number of converts by the year 1300 is estimated to be between 6,000 and 30,000.
However, China's relationship with Catholicism took a turn for the worse in the 18th century. In 1721, the Qing emperor Kangxi, due to conflicts with papal leadership over the acceptance of traditional Chinese rituals among Catholic converts, forbade the preaching of Catholicism. His successor, Yongzheng, upheld the ban and went further by condemning Catholicism as heterodox and ordering the deportation of most Catholic missionaries.
In the 19th century, following the First Opium War, China was compelled to permit foreign missionaries. This period of colonial expansion coincided with an evangelical revival in the West, leading to a surge in missionary activity in China. The Kuomintang's 1926 National Congress endorsed the growing anti-Christian movement in China, labelling missionaries as "tongues and claws of imperialism". Protests and riots linked to the Nationalists occurred, and some mission properties were destroyed or looted.
Today, China's estimated 12 million Catholics are divided between an official, state-controlled church that doesn't recognize papal authority and an "underground" church that has remained loyal to Rome despite decades of persecution. The term "underground" refers to the unregistered Catholics who reject the government-sanctioned Chinese Patriotic Catholic Association. The government has encouraged religions to actively participate in social services, and the Christian community has responded positively, viewing charity and social services as necessary for the social welfare of the nation.
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Frequently asked questions
Catholic missionaries first entered China in the late 13th century. In 1294, the Italian Franciscan priest John of Montecorvino arrived in Beijing and built a church in 1299, and a second church in 1305 opposite the imperial palace. By 1300, there were an estimated 6,000 to 30,000 Catholic converts in China. In 1721, the Qing emperor Kangxi forbade the preaching of Catholicism due to conflicts with papal leadership over the acceptance of traditional Chinese rituals among Catholic converts.
There are an estimated 12 million Catholics in China, according to AP News. However, other sources cite a figure of 3 million Chinese Catholics. According to the 2018 Chinese General Social Survey, roughly 2% of Chinese adults, or about 20 million people, self-identify as Christians, with Catholics making up the remainder (10%) and Protestants accounting for 90%.
The Vatican and Beijing have had a complex and often strained relationship. In 2018, the Vatican and China reached an agreement aimed at healing the division between the official, state-controlled church that didn't recognize papal authority and the underground church loyal to Rome. The agreement has been periodically renewed, but it has also faced criticism for caving to Beijing's demands and selling out the underground faithful in China.
The Chinese government has a history of persecuting Christians, including Catholics. Under Chairman Mao Zedong, Catholic monks and missionaries were exiled, arrested, or killed. Today, the Chinese government employs high-tech surveillance, including cameras inside and outside churches and biometric data collection, which has brought believers into conflict with authorities when they attempt to avoid these measures by meeting in unregistered places.
The future for Catholics in China remains uncertain. While the 2018 agreement between the Vatican and Beijing was aimed at improving relations, some believe it has strengthened the government's hand of repression. There are concerns that if the agreement is not renewed, Beijing may retaliate by persecuting Chinese Catholics or appointing illegal bishops.
