Joshua Bennett
The relationship between Constantinople and the Catholic Church is complex and multifaceted. While Constantine's conversion to Christianity in 312 AD was a turning point for the religion, paving the way for its growth and dominance in the Western world, the Catholic Church as we know it today has evolved over centuries. The First Council of Constantinople in 381 AD, convened by Emperor Theodosius I, aimed to provide for a Catholic succession in the patriarchal See of Constantinople and confirm the Nicene Faith. However, the East-West Schism, or Great Schism of 1054, formally divided the Catholic Church in the West and the Orthodox Church in the East, with the break attributed to a dispute over jurisdiction between Constantinople and Rome.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Date of formal schism | 1054 |
| First action leading to schism | 1053, when Patriarch Michael I Cerularius of Constantinople ordered the closure of all Latin churches in Constantinople |
| Reason for schism | Dispute over whether Constantinople or Rome held jurisdiction over the church in Sicily |
| Other reasons for strained relations | Use of unleavened vs. leavened bread in the Eucharist, procession of the Holy Spirit (Filioque), coronation of Charlemagne as emperor of the Romans in 800, pope's claim to universal jurisdiction |
| Attempts at reconciliation | Pope Paul VI and Ecumenical Patriarch Athenagoras I nullified the anathemas of 1054 in 1965; excommunications were also mutually lifted that year |
| Constantine's role | Constantine's conversion to Christianity in 312 AD was a turning point for the expansion and growth of the religion; he also played a role in the legitimization and organization of Christianity |
| Constantine's influence on the Catholic Church | Constantine's involvement in the Council of Nicaea helped establish core tenets of Christian belief |
| First Council of Constantinople | Convened in 381 by Emperor Theodosius I to confirm the Nicene Creed and reconcile semi-Arians with the Church |
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What You'll Learn
The role of Emperor Constantine
Emperor Constantine I, also known as Constantine the Great, was the first Roman emperor to convert to Christianity. He played a pivotal role in elevating the status of Christianity in Rome, decriminalising Christian practice and ceasing Christian persecution. This was a turning point in the Christianisation of the Roman Empire.
Born in Naissus, a city located in the province of Moesia Superior (now Niš, Serbia), Constantine was the son of Flavius Constantius, a Roman army officer from Moesia Superior, who would become one of the four emperors of the Tetrarchy. His mother, Helena, was a woman of low birth, probably from Bithynia. Later canonised as a saint, she is credited for the conversion of her son in some traditions, though others believe that Constantine converted her.
Constantine founded Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul) and made it the capital of the Roman Empire. He dedicated the city in 330, and it remained the capital for over a millennium. He also funded church-building projects throughout his reign as a way to encourage Christianity’s growth. Churches were erected in Rome, Trier, Nicomedia (Izmit, Turkey), Jerusalem, Cirta (Constantine, Algeria), and Constantinople.
In 313, Constantine and Licinius issued the Edict of Milan, decriminalising Christian worship. He is revered as a saint in the Eastern Orthodox Church, Oriental Orthodox Church, and various Eastern Catholic Churches for his example as a Christian monarch. Constantine is said to have believed that his political success was due to the grace of the Christian God, even claiming that he won a battle because of a divinely sourced vision he had received beforehand.
Constantine also summoned the Councils of Arles (314) and Nicaea (325), which guided church doctrine for centuries afterward. He was not baptised until right before his death in 337.
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The First Council of Constantinople
The council met from May to July 381 in the Church of Hagia Irene and was affirmed as ecumenical in 451 at the Council of Chalcedon for Chalcedonian Christianity and the Second Council of Ephesus for the Oriental Orthodox Churches. When Theodosius ascended to the imperial throne in 380, he embarked on a campaign to bring the Eastern Church back to Nicene Christianity. The council was attended by 150 Catholic and 36 heretical (Semi-Arian and Macedonian) bishops and was presided over by Meletius of Antioch, and after his death, by the successive Patriarchs of Constantinople.
The council also dealt with issues such as the schism in Antioch and the consecration of a proper bishop for the see of Constantinople. It confirmed Theodosius' installation of Gregory Nazianzus as Archbishop of Constantinople, also known as St. Gregory Nazianzen. The council's first measure was to confirm him as Bishop of Constantinople. Additionally, the council addressed the equality of the Holy Spirit with the Father and the Son, adopting what became known as the Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed, commonly referred to as the Nicene Creed.
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The East-West Schism
The roots of the schism can be traced back to the early church, when three bishops stood out prominently due to the political eminence of the cities they ruled: the bishops of Rome, Alexandria, and Antioch. The transfer of the seat of empire from Rome to Constantinople shifted the dynamics, and the theological calmness of the West contrasted with the violent theological disputes in the Eastern patriarchates. This strengthened the position of the Roman popes, who began to assert their claim to preeminence and universal jurisdiction. However, this claim was never acknowledged in the East, setting the stage for a potential separation.
The specific events leading up to the formal schism in 1054 included several key issues. One prominent dispute was over the procession of the Holy Spirit (Filioque), with the Western church adding the phrase "and (from) the Son" to the Nicene Creed, which was rejected by the Eastern church as a unilateral alteration. Another issue was the use of leavened or unleavened bread in the Eucharist, with the Eastern churches objecting to the Western enforcement of unleavened bread. The coronation of Charlemagne as emperor of the Romans in 800 and the pope's claim to universal jurisdiction further exacerbated tensions. Additionally, the place of the See of Constantinople in relation to the pentarchy was a point of contention.
In 1053, Patriarch Michael I Cerularius of Constantinople ordered the closure of all Latin churches in the city, marking the first step towards a formal schism. The following year, in 1054, the papal legate sent by Pope Leo IX travelled to Constantinople and excommunicated Cerularius, who retaliated with a similar excommunication. While there were attempts at reconciliation, the underlying theological and ecclesiastical differences, as well as political and cultural factors, made it difficult to bridge the divide. The East-West Schism has never been fully healed, and the two churches continue to have distinct identities.
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The role of the Pope
The Pope is the title given to the bishop of Rome, who is the leader of the Roman Catholic Church. The title is believed to date back to the 9th century CE. The Pope is regarded as the successor of St. Peter, who was the head of the Twelve Apostles of Jesus. As the successor of St. Peter, the Pope has full and supreme power over the universal church in matters of faith, morals, church discipline, and government.
The Pope plays a crucial role in handing on Jesus' message that God is love and planting this message in contemporary soil. This includes both preaching and teaching. The Pope makes decisions on issues of faith and morality for Catholics worldwide, a population of about 1.3 billion. The Pope's role has evolved over time, with changes made by the ecumenical Second Vatican Council (1962-65) that sought to balance the emphasis on papal prerogatives while maintaining the view that the authority of the bishops and the Pope as their head are interconnected.
The Pope is the Prime Witness to Faith and, on rare occasions, may be the main exponent of the infallible understanding of faith. The Pope can only do so after listening to and discerning the faith of the People of God. The Pope's authority extends over every section of the Church and every aspect of people's lives, reflecting the power structures and authoritarian practices of secular rulers.
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The Nicene Creed
The original Nicene Creed has been expanded over time, with additions made by the Council of Constantinople in 381, which was called by Emperor Theodosius to confirm the Nicene Faith and reconcile the semi-Arians with the Church. The Nicene Creed in its present form was accepted at the Council of Chalcedon in 451. However, it is important to note that the Creed has variations in the Greek (Eastern) and Latin (Western) churches, with the Western church including the phrase "and the Son" (known as "filioque") in the article on the procession of the Holy Spirit. This variation was not added until 589 and is still repudiated by the Eastern Orthodox Church.
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Frequently asked questions
The East-West Schism, also known as the Great Schism, was the break of communion between the Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church in 1054. This was caused by a series of ecclesiastical differences and theological disputes between the Greek East and Latin West.
There were several issues that led to the Schism. These included the procession of the Holy Spirit (Filioque), the use of leavened or unleavened bread in the Eucharist, iconoclasm, the coronation of Charlemagne as emperor of the Romans, the pope's claim to universal jurisdiction, and the place of Constantinople in relation to the pentarchy.
The dispute over whether Constantinople or Rome held jurisdiction over the church in Sicily was a major factor in the East-West Schism. The Fourth Crusade and the sacking of Constantinople by renegade crusaders proved to be the final breach.
The First Council of Constantinople was convened in 381 by Emperor Theodosius I. It was an effort to attain consensus in the church through an assembly representing all of Christendom, except for the Western Church. It confirmed the Nicene Creed and dealt with other matters such as the consecration of bishops.
