Ethan Walker
The Catholic Church has faced criticism and unrest throughout its long history. From its inception, the Church has suffered persecution and violence, often perpetrated by governments and rulers. The Roman persecutions, for example, spanned two centuries, with the first empire-wide persecution occurring under the reign of Decius. Over time, the Church's immense wealth and power, combined with the perceived false doctrines and malpractice of its leaders, led to discontent and calls for reform. The Reformation, inaugurated by Martin Luther in the 16th century, sought to address these issues and resulted in the creation of new national Protestant churches. The Catholic Church responded with a Counter-Reformation, spearheaded by the Society of Jesus (Jesuits).
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Persecution | Jesus warned his disciples about persecution, and Christians became easy targets during times of civil unrest and bad economies. |
| Power of the Pope | The pope's power over the Church and politics was criticised by Martin Luther and John Wycliffe. |
| Sale of Indulgences | The sale of indulgences was criticised by Martin Luther and Jan Hus, who asserted that the Pope had no right to take up the sword in the name of the Church. |
| False Doctrines and Ecclesiastic Malpractice | Priests opposed false doctrines and ecclesiastic malpractice, which led to the Reformation. |
| Lack of Education | Martin Luther criticised the Church for priests not being well-educated. |
| Corruption | Martin Luther's 95 Theses pointed out corruption among the higher leaders in the Church. |
| Involvement with Dictatorial Regimes | The Church has been criticised for its involvement with various dictatorial regimes. |
| Handling of Sexual Abuse | The Church has been criticised for its handling of incidents of sexual abuse. |
| Criticism from Traditionalists | Traditionalists have criticised the Novus Ordo Missae for its simplified rubrics, shift away from ad orientem worship, reduced emphasis on the sacrificial nature of the Mass, and incorporation of Protestant-influenced elements. |
| Western Schism | From 1378 to 1418, several men simultaneously claimed to be the true pope, creating a split within the Catholic Church. |
| Avignon Papacy | The Avignon Papacy contributed to discontent within the Church. |
| Papal Schism | The Papal Schism contributed to discontent within the Church. |
| Failure of the Conciliar Movement | The failure of the Conciliar Movement, which sought to reform the Church by asserting the authority of an Ecumenical council over the pope, contributed to unrest. |
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What You'll Learn
The Western Schism and the Conciliar movement
The Western Schism refers to the split within the Catholic Church from 1378 to 1417 (or 1418), when several men simultaneously claimed to be the true pope. The papacy had been based in Avignon since 1309, under the influence of the French monarchy, but Pope Gregory XI returned to Rome in 1377. After Gregory XI's death in 1378, a group of French cardinals declared his successor Urban VI's election invalid, electing Clement VII as pope in Avignon. This resulted in rival popes in Rome and Avignon, and later a third line of claimants emerged in 1409.
The Conciliar movement was a reform movement in the 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries that emerged in response to the Western Schism. It held that supreme authority in the church resided with an Ecumenical council, apart from, or even against, the pope. The movement asserted that the church and its priests were the sources of papal power, and thus the church could correct, punish, or depose a pope if necessary. The Council of Constance, held from 1414 to 1418, ended the Western Schism by deposing or accepting the resignation of the remaining papal claimants and electing Pope Martin V. It was the first ecumenical council held in the Holy Roman Empire, and it also condemned Jan Hus as a heretic, facilitating his execution. The Conciliar movement's challenge to papal authority influenced the later Protestant Reformation of the 16th century.
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John Wycliffe and Jan Hus' opposition to the Pope's authority
John Wycliffe and Jan Hus were early and prominent critics of the Pope's authority and opponents of the theology and hierarchy of the Roman Catholic Church.
John Wycliffe
John Wycliffe was a 14th-century Oxford professor and parish priest. He was born during the reign of Pope John XXII, one of the Avignon popes, and never knew a Roman pope until he was middle-aged. Wycliffe believed that the Church had fallen into sin and that it ought to give up all its property, arguing that the clergy must live in poverty. He also opposed the temporal rule of the clergy and the collection of annates, indulgences, and simony. In addition, Wycliffe advocated for the translation of the Bible into the common language.
In 1374, Wycliffe was sent to Bruges to discuss points of dispute between the King of England and the Pope. After his return, he began to express his ideas in writing, including a book on the government of God and the Ten Commandments. In 1377, Wycliffe's ideas on lordship and church wealth led to his first official condemnation by Pope Gregory XI, who censured 19 articles. Wycliffe continued to face opposition from the English hierarchy and was eventually declared a heretic by the Council of Constance in 1415. The Council ordered that Wycliffe's remains be exhumed and burned, and his ashes drowned in the River Swift.
Jan Hus
Jan Hus was a 15th-century Czech priest and teacher at the University of Prague. He was a follower of Wycliffe and shared similar views, including opposition to indulgences and the idea of purgatory. Hus also wanted liturgy in the Czech language and for priests to be allowed to marry. He wrote a book entitled "De Ecclesia," in which he argued that the Church did not consist primarily of the clergy and that scriptures held authority over Popes and councils.
Hus was called to the Council of Constance in 1414, where he was tried for heresy. Despite being promised safe conduct, he was imprisoned and ultimately burned at the stake in 1415. His death led to a radicalization of the Bohemian Reformation and the Hussite Wars in the Crown of Bohemia.
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The sale of indulgences
In Catholic theology, an indulgence is a remission of the punishment for a sin that has already been forgiven. In other words, it is a way to reduce the amount of punishment one has to undergo for sins that have already been absolved. The granting of indulgences was predicated on two beliefs: first, that absolution alone was not enough to forgive the guilt of sin, and one also needed to undergo temporal punishment. Second, indulgences rested on the belief in purgatory, a place where one could continue to cancel the accumulated debt of their sins.
The idea of purgatory took widespread hold in the 11th and 12th centuries, and indulgences emerged around this time. By the late Middle Ages, indulgences were used to support charities for the public good, including hospitals. However, the abuse of indulgences for almsgiving also became a serious problem, with indulgences being used as a method of fundraising. This abuse was a target of attacks by Martin Luther and other Protestant theologians during the Protestant Reformation. Luther's Ninety-Five Theses criticized the sale of indulgences, arguing that buying them had no impact on whether people would get into heaven. He disagreed with the idea that "as soon as a coin in the coffer rings, a soul from purgatory springs", saying that indulgences only guaranteed an increase in profit and greed.
In the 16th century, when the abuse of indulgences was at its height, Cardinal Cajetan wrote about the problem, noting that preachers who taught things that were ignorant and arbitrary could not be considered representatives of the Church. The Council of Trent issued a decree that provided stringent guidelines to eliminate abuses and condemned those who asserted that indulgences were useless or denied the Church's power to grant them. In 1567, Pope Pius V forbade tying indulgences to any financial act, and reforms in the 20th century largely abolished the quantification of indulgences.
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The Church's involvement with dictatorial regimes
The Catholic Church has faced criticism for its involvement with various dictatorial regimes throughout history. One notable example is the Church's role during the Mexican Revolution, which began in 1910 against the dictatorship of Porfirio Díaz. The Catholic Church had an informal agreement with the Díaz government, where the state maintained anticlerical articles in the liberal Constitution of 1857 but did not enforce them. However, when Francisco I. Madero, the first revolutionary leader, was overthrown and executed in 1913 by General Victoriano Huerta, the Church publicly condemned the coup. As a result, the new regime targeted members of the National Catholic Party, jailing its president and halting the publication of its newspaper.
During the wave of democratization that followed, the Constitutionalist faction, led by Venustiano Carranza, emerged victorious and drafted the Constitution of 1917, which strengthened anticlerical provisions. Despite this, Carranza and his successor, General Alvaro Obregón, were lenient in enforcing these articles due to their internal power struggles and the Church's influence in certain regions. This period also saw the formation of female Catholic activist groups, such as the Women's Brigade, which played a significant role in the revolution by providing support to combatant men and smuggling weapons.
In the 20th century, the Catholic Church's relationship with dictatorial regimes in Latin America evolved. Initially, the Church supported dictators such as Juan Domingo Perón in Argentina, but this support turned to condemnation when Perón targeted the Church, imposing taxes on its property, expelling priests, and burning churches. Similarly, in Colombia, Cardinal Crisanto Luque issued pastoral letters condemning Dictator Gustavo Rojas Pinilla's "Third Force" political movement, demonstrating the Church's opposition to the regime.
In Cuba, a Roman Catholic priest was known to have lived with and ministered to Fidel Castro's band of rebels in the Sierra Maestra mountains. The Church in Latin America began to reevaluate its alignment with dictatorial regimes, recognizing that dictatorships and poverty breed Communism. This shift in perspective was influenced by Pope Leo XIII's encyclical Rerum novarum, which advocated for the fair treatment of working masses, and the teachings of Jesuit priest Father Riccardo Lombardi, who led an organization called "Per un Mondo Migliore" (For a Better World).
The Church's stance towards dictatorial regimes has not always been consistent, as evidenced by its complex involvement in Mexico and Latin America. While there have been instances of collaboration, the Church has also shown resistance and criticism towards dictators who threatened its interests or clashed with its values. This evolution demonstrates the Church's recognition of the negative consequences of dictatorships and its efforts to chart a new, antidictatorial course.
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The Church's handling of sexual abuse
The Catholic Church has been criticized for its handling of sexual abuse cases, particularly those involving children. The Church has historically held tight control over many aspects of church life globally, but it left sex abuse cases to be handled locally. This has resulted in a conspiracy of silence, with sexual abuse by clergy often going unreported and unaddressed.
In 2018, a list was published revealing that over 1,300 Catholic clergy in Ireland had been accused of sexual abuse, with 82 convictions. In the same year, an Italian victim rights group stated that the Italian justice system had handled about 300 cases of abusive priests and nuns since 2000, resulting in 150-170 convictions. In 2010, it was revealed that the Catholic Boy Scouts of Ireland (CBSI) had covered up sex abuse by shielding 275 known or suspected predators.
The National Conference of Catholic Bishops has established an ad hoc committee on sexual abuse by clergy to help church leaders take appropriate action. Each diocese has developed comprehensive policies concerning sexual abuse, which apply to employees, volunteers, clergy, and religious figures. The Church has acknowledged the suffering caused by abuse and has expressed commitment to preventing future abuse and restoring victims to health. However, the Church's handling of sexual abuse cases has led to criticism and unrest, with some arguing that the Church carries a heavy burden of responsibility in this area.
The vulnerability of churches to child sexual abuse has been attributed to several factors. Firstly, churches are institutions of trust, providing ample opportunities for contact with children. Secondly, most pedophiles have been pushed out of other organizations due to stricter employment and volunteer regulations, leading them to seek out churches as potential targets. Finally, there is a tendency to view certain authority figures within the Church as above reproach, making it difficult to recognize and address abusive behavior.
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Frequently asked questions
John Wycliffe and Jan Hus were early opponents of papal authority and critics of some of the practices of the Roman Catholic Church. Wycliffe advocated for the translation of the Bible into the common language. Hus wanted liturgy in the language of the people (Czech), married priests, and to eliminate indulgences and the idea of purgatory. He also asserted that no pope or bishop had the right to take up arms in the name of the Church.
Martin Luther was a seminal figure of the Protestant Reformation. He wrote the Ninety-Five Theses, which criticised many of the doctrines and practices of the Catholic Church, including the sale of indulgences, the lack of education of priests, and the corruption of higher leaders in the Church. Luther also stated that the Pope had too much power over the Church and politics.
The Reformation led to the creation of new national Protestant churches, including the Lutherans and the Reformed churches. It resulted in a permanent and irreversible divide in Western Christendom, with the emergence of several new Christian churches. The Roman Catholic Church responded with a Counter-Reformation, spearheaded by the new order of the Society of Jesus (Jesuits), specifically organised to counter the Protestant movement.
The unrest in the Catholic Church was caused by a combination of spiritual, theological, and sociopolitical factors. There was a widespread perception that the papacy refused to reform itself, despite the relative success of the Fifth Lateran Council (1512-17). The hierarchy's greed and corruption were also criticised, including the sale of indulgences. Additionally, there was a sense that professional theologians were more interested in scholastic debates than in the practical matters of everyday Christian belief and practice.
