Michael Brooks
The principle of double effect is a moral philosophy in Catholic theology, first theorised by St. Thomas Aquinas in the 13th century. It is used to determine when an action that has two effects, one good and one evil, may be chosen without sin. The principle has been applied to many difficult normative questions, especially in medical ethics, and has been the subject of much debate.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Origin | Attributed to St. Thomas Aquinas, who used it to justify killing in self-defence |
| Application | Used to determine when an action with two effects, one good and one evil, may be chosen without sin |
| Moral Object | The action must be morally good or at least indifferent |
| Intention | The good effect must be intended, the bad effect must not be directly willed |
| Causality | The good effect must not be a direct result of the bad effect |
| Proportionality | The good effect must be proportionate to the bad effect |
| Moral Law | The principle is used to distinguish morally complex cases |
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What You'll Learn
Abortion, contraception, adultery, and other evils
The Principle of Double Effect is a concept in Catholic moral theology, attributed to St. Thomas Aquinas, which states that an action with both good and evil effects may be permissible if certain conditions are met.
Abortion
Abortion is considered a grave evil in Catholic teaching, as it involves the direct and intentional killing of an innocent human life. The principle of double effect is often invoked in situations where a pregnant woman's life is in danger, and an abortion could potentially save her life. In such cases, the Church has long recognised the principle of double effect, prioritising the mother's life while still condemning the loss of the child.
However, the principle of double effect does not justify abortions performed for non-life-threatening reasons, such as the mother's mental, emotional, financial, or social health. In these cases, the evil effect (the death of the child) is not a regrettable byproduct but the direct intention of the act, which is morally unacceptable.
Contraception
Contraception is another act that the Catholic Church has traditionally condemned as an intrinsic evil. However, the principle of double effect could potentially come into play in certain situations. For example, a woman may use hormonal contraception to treat a medical condition, and the contraceptive effect could be considered an unintended side effect.
Adultery
Adultery is considered a grave sin in Catholic teaching, as it violates the sanctity of marriage and family. The principle of double effect does not apply here, as the act of adultery itself is always considered morally wrong, regardless of intentions or circumstances.
Other Evils
The principle of double effect can be applied to various other situations deemed intrinsically evil by the Church, but it is important to note that not all evil effects can be justified by good intentions. The good effect must be caused at least as directly as the bad, and the good consequences must be proportionate to the evil ones.
For example, establishing a just wage for workers is a desirable good according to Catholic social teaching. However, this good effect cannot compensate for evils such as abortion, attacks on marriage and family, or the loss of religious freedom. These are considered categorically and qualitatively different types of goods and cannot be balanced against each other.
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Killing in self-defence
The Principle of Double Effect, articulated by St. Thomas Aquinas, is a concept in Catholic moral theology that seeks to clarify when an action with two effects, one good and one bad, may be chosen without sin. This principle has been used to justify killing in self-defence, a complex issue that Catholic theologians have debated extensively.
The Catechism of the Catholic Church recognises the right to self-defence, stating that "legitimate defence can be not only a right but a grave duty for someone responsible for another’s life, the common good of the family or of the State". However, it also emphasises the gravity of taking a human life and cautions against excessive force, reminding Catholics that "no more injury may be inflicted on the assailant than is necessary to defeat his purpose".
When considering killing in self-defence through the lens of the Principle of Double Effect, several conditions must be met. Firstly, the action must be morally good or, at the least, neutral in its object, motive, and circumstances. The good intention must be the primary driver, with any negative consequences tolerated but not directly willed. For example, a person acting in self-defence must intend to defend their life, not to take the life of the assailant.
Secondly, the good effect must be caused at least as directly as the bad effect. This principle of proportionality forbids tolerating negative effects that are not seriously proportionate to the expected good effects. For instance, it would be disproportionate to kill a thief for stealing items of trivial value, as charity forbids depriving a life for a minor loss.
Thirdly, the good effects must be proportionate to the bad effects. This condition distinguishes the Principle of Double Effect from consequentialism and proportionalism, which argue that the end (intention) can justify an otherwise evil act. The Principle of Double Effect maintains that certain acts, such as abortion, are intrinsically evil and cannot be justified by their intention or consequences.
Finally, for an action to be morally good, all three elements—the object, the end, and the circumstances—must be good together. This condition underscores the importance of right intention in Catholic moral theology.
In summary, while the Catholic Church recognises the right to self-defence and, in some cases, the duty to defend oneself or others, killing in self-defence is a complex ethical issue. The Principle of Double Effect provides a framework for evaluating these situations, emphasising the necessity of good intentions, proportionality, and the avoidance of intrinsic evils.
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Medical ethics
The principle of double effect is a set of ethical criteria used to evaluate the permissibility of an action that may cause an undesirable effect alongside a desirable one. The principle is attributed to St. Thomas Aquinas, who used it to argue that killing in self-defence is justified.
The principle has been applied in medical ethics, particularly in the context of Catholic teaching, to determine when an action with both good and bad effects can be chosen without sin. For instance, in the case of a pregnancy that threatens the life of the mother, the principle of double effect has been used to argue that ending the pregnancy to save the mother's life is permissible, as the death of the foetus is not "directly" intended. However, if a craniotomy, or the crushing of the foetus's skull, is required to save the mother's life, this would not be permissible under the principle of double effect, as the death of the foetus is directly intended and is considered a "genuine evil".
The principle of double effect has also been applied in discussions around palliative care and the hastening of death. Some argue that terminal sedation, where life-prolonging therapies are withdrawn with the intention of hastening death, would not be permitted under the principle of double effect, even though it may be considered acceptable according to current legal and medical ethical standards.
The principle of double effect consists of four conditions that must be satisfied:
- The action must be morally good or neutral in terms of its object, motive, and circumstances.
- The bad effect(s) may be tolerated but not directly willed.
- The good effect must be caused at least as directly as the bad.
- The good effect(s) must be proportionate to compensate for the bad effect(s).
The principle has been subject to interpretation and debate, with some arguing that it can obscure important ethical issues and be manipulated to justify harmful actions.
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Intention vs. foresight
The Principle of Double Effect is a concept in Catholic moral theology, attributed to St. Thomas Aquinas. It is used to determine when an action that has two effects, one good and one evil, may still be chosen without sin.
The four conditions that must be satisfied for an action to be permissible are:
- The action must be morally good or neutral in itself and not intrinsically evil.
- The bad effect(s) may be tolerated but not directly willed; the good effect must be intended, while the evil effect is merely tolerated.
- The good effect must be caused at least as directly as the bad.
- The good effect(s) must be proportionate to compensate for the bad effect(s).
The distinction between intention and foresight is critical to the Principle of Double Effect. Intention refers to the actor's intended end or goal, while foresight refers to the foreseen or foreseeable consequences of the action. According to the Principle of Double Effect, if an event is foreseen, it is encompassed in what was intended. However, it is argued that people may not always be reliable in distinguishing between what they intend and what they merely foresee as a consequence.
This distinction is particularly significant in evaluating the morality of actions in clinical settings. For example, in the case of euthanasia, a doctor's intention may be to relieve a patient's suffering, while the foreseen consequence is the patient's death. In this scenario, the Principle of Double Effect would argue that the doctor's action is immoral because the relief of suffering is not proportionate to the loss of life.
Another example is the use of medication to sedate a dying patient to relieve their pain. The secondary effect of the medication may be to hasten the patient's death. According to the Principle of Double Effect, this action would be permissible if the intention is to relieve pain and not to hasten death. The hastening of death is not caused by the relief of pain but by other secondary effects of the medication.
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Proportionality
The Principle of Double Effect is a tenet of Catholic casuistry that helps determine when an action with two effects, one good and one evil, may be chosen without sin. The principle is often invoked to explain the permissibility of an action that causes serious harm as a side effect of promoting a good end.
The principle of double effect has four conditions that must be satisfied for an action to be morally permissible:
- The action contemplated must be morally good or indifferent as to object, motive, and circumstances.
- The bad effect must not be directly intended or willed but merely tolerated.
- The good effect must be caused at least as directly as the bad effect.
- The good effect must be proportionate to compensate for the bad effect.
The fourth condition, the proportionality condition, is the focus of this discussion. Proportionality in the Principle of Double Effect refers to the requirement that the good effect of an action must be proportionate to the bad effect. In other words, the good outcome of a particular action must be significant enough to justify or outweigh the negative outcome. This condition ensures that the overall result of the action is positive or beneficial.
For example, in medical ethics, the principle of double effect is applied to distinguish between permissible and impermissible procedures. In the case of a life-threatening cancerous uterus, removing the uterus may be permissible under this principle because it preserves the life of the mother, even though it results in the death of the fetus. The death of the fetus is not directly intended, and the preservation of the mother's life is considered a proportionate good effect that compensates for the negative outcome.
However, if a craniotomy (crushing of the fetus's skull) is required to save the mother's life, this procedure would be impermissible because the death of the fetus is directly intended, and the good effect of preserving the mother's life is not considered proportionate to the evil effect of intentionally taking the life of the fetus.
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