Michael Brooks
The Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association (NICRA) was formed in 1967 to campaign for civil rights for Irish Catholics in Northern Ireland. One of its primary demands was One Man, One Vote, which aimed to address the political disenfranchisement of Catholics in the region. Prior to NICRA's formation, Catholics in Northern Ireland faced significant barriers to voting and political representation due to gerrymandering, property requirements, and discrimination. The introduction of proportional representation in local government elections in the 1920s further disadvantaged Catholic communities, leading to their underrepresentation in towns and cities with significant Catholic populations. The civil rights movement of the 1960s, inspired by similar campaigns in the United States, sought to address these injustices and secure equal rights for Catholics in Northern Ireland.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Catholics allowed to hold public office | No, until the Catholic Emancipation in 1829 |
| Voting rights for Catholics | Initially, only those who paid local taxes or rates could vote, which disproportionately affected Catholics |
| Gerrymandering | Yes, in Derry, a city with a 61% nationalist majority, a unionist majority was elected to the city council |
| Property franchise | Yes, votes in local elections were granted only to those who owned property, favouring the Protestant community |
| Multiple votes | Yes, business owners could have multiple votes |
| Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association (NICRA) | Established in 1967 to protest discrimination and campaign for civil rights for Irish Catholics |
| NICRA aims | "One man, one vote", end to gerrymandering, prevention of discrimination in government jobs and council housing |
| NICRA tactics | Non-violent, inspired by the US civil rights movement |
| Impact of the British Army | Antagonistic towards the Catholic population, leading to a deterioration in relations and an increase in IRA activities |
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What You'll Learn
Gerrymandering and property requirements
The practice of gerrymandering in Northern Ireland was introduced in 1923 by the Leech Commission, which redrew local government electoral boundaries. This resulted in nationalists losing control of many local councils, despite having majority support in some areas. For example, in Derry, a city with a 61% nationalist majority, unionists maintained a majority on the city council. Similarly, in Armagh, where there were 68,000 Protestants and 56,000 Catholics, the County Council had twenty-two Protestants and eight Catholics.
Property requirements also played a significant role in disenfranchising Catholics. Proportional representation for local government elections was abolished in 1920, and a property franchise was introduced, granting votes only to those who owned property. This disproportionately benefited the Protestant community, as they were more likely to own property. Additionally, business owners were allowed multiple votes, further skewing the representation in favour of Protestants.
The Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association (NICRA), formed in 1967, campaigned for an end to gerrymandering and property requirements, advocating for "one man, one vote" to allow all people over the age of 18 to vote in local council elections. Their efforts contributed to the postponement of the introduction of new councils in 2011, as accusations of gerrymandering sparked controversy.
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Catholic emancipation
In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, the kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland, and later the combined United Kingdom, underwent a process known as Catholic Emancipation or Catholic Relief. This involved lifting many of the restrictions on Roman Catholics that had been imposed by the Act of Uniformity, the Test Acts, and the penal laws.
The penal laws, which had been enacted in the 17th and early 18th centuries, placed a range of civil and political disabilities on Roman Catholics. These included restrictions on the practice of their religion, the inability to purchase land, hold civil or military offices, inherit property, or sit in Parliament.
The process of Catholic Emancipation began with the dismantling of the penal laws from 1766 onwards. The first Relief Act was passed in 1778, enabling Roman Catholics in Britain to acquire property, including land. Similar legislation was enacted in Ireland through a series of measures in 1774, 1778, and 1782.
The Roman Catholic Relief Act of 1791 in Britain and 1793 in Ireland further advanced the rights of Roman Catholics. The 1791 Act allowed the free practice of Catholicism, albeit with some restrictions. The 1793 Act extended the right to vote to Irish Catholics who held land with an annual rental value of £2 or more. It also granted access to middle-class professions, such as the legal profession, grand juries, universities, and the lower ranks of the army and judiciary.
The issue of greater political emancipation was considered in 1800 during the Act of Union between Great Britain and Ireland, but it was not included due to opposition from Irish Protestants and British Tories. However, the momentum for Catholic Emancipation continued to build, with the charismatic Irish lawyer and orator Daniel O'Connell playing a pivotal role. O'Connell established the Catholic Association in 1823 and mobilized the Irish Catholic peasantry and middle class to agitate for full emancipation.
In 1828, O'Connell stood in a Parliamentary by-election in County Clare, insisting that he would not take his seat until the anti-Catholic oath required of members of Parliament was abolished. His triumphant election compelled the British Prime Minister, the Duke of Wellington, and Sir Robert Peel to carry the Emancipation Act of 1829 in Parliament.
The Roman Catholic Relief Act of 1829, also known as the Catholic Emancipation Act, removed many of the remaining substantial restrictions on Roman Catholics in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. It admitted Catholics to Parliament and most public offices, and repealed the sacramental tests and oaths that had barred them from certain positions. However, to appease the Protestant minority in Ireland, the minimum property qualification for voters was increased, disenfranchising a significant portion of the Irish electorate.
In Northern Ireland, the issue of voting rights and representation remained contentious, particularly in local government. The Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association (NICRA) campaigned during the late 1960s and early 1970s for an end to discrimination against Catholics in elections, which were often subject to gerrymandering and property requirements. "One Man One Vote" was one of their key demands, seeking to address the artificial unionist majority in many towns and cities with a Catholic majority.
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Voting rights for Irish citizens in Northern Ireland
Voting rights for Irish Catholics in Northern Ireland have been a contentious issue since the country's formation in 1921. The country's first Prime Minister, James Craig, famously declared Northern Ireland to be "a Protestant Parliament and a Protestant State". The country's electoral system was designed to ensure that the Protestant community maintained control of local governments and the national parliament. This was achieved through gerrymandering, the property franchise (which granted votes in local elections only to those who owned property), and the plural business vote (which allowed business owners multiple votes). As a result, many towns and cities with a Catholic majority, such as Derry, Armagh, and Dungannon, were controlled by Unionist-majority councils.
The Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association (NICRA) was formed in 1967 to campaign for civil rights for Irish Catholics, including the right to vote. One of their main demands was "One Man, One Vote", which called for an end to plural voting and gerrymandering. At the time, only those who paid local taxes or rates could vote in Northern Ireland, and due to higher unemployment and poverty rates among Catholics, they were less likely to meet this requirement. NICRA's marches and demonstrations were often met with violence from the Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC) and loyalist paramilitaries, leading to the outbreak of "The Troubles".
Despite these efforts, Irish citizens in Northern Ireland continue to be denied the right to vote in some elections. For example, Irish citizens living in Northern Ireland cannot vote in Irish presidential elections or European elections, a restriction that is in violation of the EU's freedom of movement principle. This affects the over 830,000 Irish citizens and passport holders living in Northern Ireland, who are effectively denied voting rights due to their location within the United Kingdom.
Historically, Catholics in Ireland had also faced restrictions on their voting rights. Until the early 19th century, Catholics were barred from holding public office, including seats in Parliament. In 1829, Catholic Emancipation allowed Catholics to enter public office, but the electorate in Ireland was drastically reduced to maintain Protestant political power.
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Discrimination in elections
In Northern Ireland, Catholics faced significant discrimination in elections, with their voting rights restricted and their political influence curtailed. This discrimination was a key driver of the civil rights movement in the region during the 1960s.
One of the primary demands of the Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association (NICRA) was "one man, one vote", which sought to abolish the property franchise and address gerrymandering that diluted the electoral power of Catholics. Before the introduction of the "one man, one vote" principle, voting in local elections was restricted to property owners, disproportionately favouring the Protestant community. This resulted in many towns and cities with a Catholic majority, such as Derry, Armagh, and Dungannon, being controlled by Unionist-majority councils. Gerrymandering of district boundaries further reduced the representation of Catholics, as seen in Derry, where a 61% nationalist majority still elected a Unionist-dominated council.
The franchise in Northern Ireland lagged behind reforms in Westminster, with plural voting remaining in place for local government and the Parliament of Northern Ireland into the late 1960s. This allowed business owners to hold multiple votes, further skewing representation in favour of Protestants. The introduction of first-past-the-post elections in 1929 also contributed to the dilution of the Catholic vote, as it allowed the Unionist Party to gain seats despite losing vote share.
The civil rights movement in Northern Ireland was inspired by the example of the American civil rights movement and the non-violent philosophy of Martin Luther King Jr. The Northern Irish Catholic middle class, influenced by these ideas, advocated for equal rights and an end to discrimination in elections, housing, and employment. They faced resistance from the state, with the Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC) attempting to violently disperse protests and the British Army's use of CS gas intensifying tensions.
The discrimination faced by Catholics in Northern Ireland's electoral system had deep historical roots. Until the early 19th century, Catholics were barred from holding public office, including seats in Parliament. While Catholic Emancipation in 1829 allowed Catholics to enter public office, it was accompanied by a reduction in the electorate to ensure the Protestant minority retained political power. This dynamic contributed to the complex and often contentious history of elections and civil rights in Northern Ireland.
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The Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association
The idea for NICRA emerged from a meeting in Maghera in August 1966 at the home of Kevin Agnew, a Derry republican solicitor. The meeting was attended by the Wolfe Tone Societies of Dublin, Cork, Belfast, Derry, and County Tyrone, and the IRA's chief of staff, Cathal Goulding. It was proposed that an organisation be created with wider civil rights objectives. The Republican movement increasingly saw campaigning for civil rights as a more productive way forward than traditional armed struggle.
NICRA's constitution emphasised its non-party and non-denominational character. The association aimed to make representations on broad civil liberties issues and take up individual cases of discrimination and ill-treatment. Its specific aims included:
- "One man, one vote": allowing all people over 18 to vote in local council elections and removing multiple votes held by business owners.
- Ending gerrymandering of electoral wards to produce an artificial unionist majority.
- Preventing discrimination in the allocation of government jobs and council housing.
NICRA's approach was to rely on and seek to vindicate civil rights, i.e., rights adhering to all citizens of Northern Ireland as British citizens, rather than base its demands on the nationalist goal of reunification with the rest of Ireland. This approach appealed to moderate unionists who believed that Northern Ireland's Catholics were being unfairly treated and that if NICRA's aims were achieved, Catholics would have less reason to seek a united Ireland.
However, there were tensions within the association between those advocating militant methods and those wedded to the pacifist American civil rights model. From its inception, NICRA faced opposition from a large section of unionists.
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Frequently asked questions
Yes, Catholics were allowed to vote in Northern Ireland, but there were barriers in place that made it more difficult for them to do so. These included gerrymandering, property requirements, and the business vote, which gave multiple votes to business owners. The Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association (NICRA) campaigned in the 1960s for the right of all people over the age of 18 to vote in local council elections, with the slogan "One man, one vote".
The Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association (NICRA) was an organisation that campaigned for civil rights for Irish Catholics in Northern Ireland during the late 1960s and early 1970s. Formed in Belfast in 1967, NICRA attempted to achieve reform by publicising, documenting, and lobbying for an end to discrimination against Catholics in areas such as elections, employment, and public housing.
The "business vote" was a system in place in Northern Ireland that allowed business owners to hold multiple votes in local elections. This was in addition to their regular vote as a citizen. This system disproportionately benefited the Protestant community, as they tended to own more property and businesses.
Gerrymandering in Northern Ireland involved redrawing electoral boundaries in a way that diluted the voting power of the Catholic community. This resulted in many towns and cities with a Catholic majority still being controlled by a Unionist-majority council. For example, in Derry, a city with a 61% nationalist majority, the gerrymandering of district boundaries resulted in a unionist majority on the city council.
Yes, prior to 1829, Catholics in Ireland were unable to hold public office, including the position of Member of Parliament. In that year, Catholic Emancipation allowed Catholics to enter public office. However, to ensure that the Protestant minority was not outvoted, the property qualification for voting was raised, reducing the overall electorate in Ireland.
