Sarah Mitchell
Protestantism and Catholicism, both denominations of Christianity, have been present in China since the early medieval period, with the Church of the East arriving in the 7th century during the Tang dynasty. Protestantism arrived in China in the 19th century, and Catholicism was reintroduced by Jesuits in the 16th century. In 2018, the Chinese government declared there were over 44 million Christians in China, with 38 million Protestants and 6 million Catholics. However, some international Christian organizations estimate there may be tens of millions more who choose not to publicly identify as Christian.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Number of Protestants in China | 38 million (2018) per the State Council of the People's Republic of China White Paper on Religious Freedom; 40 million per a 2010 Peking University study; 100 million per a 2019 estimate by Fenggang Yang, a sociologist of religion at Purdue University; 3 million before 1949 |
| Number of Catholics in China | 6 million (2018) per the State Council of the People's Republic of China White Paper on Religious Freedom; 1 million before 1949 |
| Percentage of Christians in China | 2% of Chinese adults (2018) per the Chinese General Social Survey (CGSS); 2.53% (2014) per the CFPS survey; 3% (2016) per the China Family Panel Studies (CFPS) survey; 7% (2020) per the Center for the Study of Global Christianity; 9% (2020) per media reports and academic papers |
| Number of Protestant Clergy in China | 37,000 (2009); 36,000 (2018) |
| Chinese Term for God Used by Protestants | Shangdi ("Highest Emperor") |
| Chinese Term for God Used by Catholics | Tianzhu ("Lord of Heaven"), which is also the origin of the Chinese name for Catholicism: Tianzhujiao |
| Banned Actions for Christians in China | Unauthorized evangelization online; meeting in unauthorized Protestant meeting points or underground Catholic churches |
| Christian Texts Used in China | The Chinese Union Version of the Bible; the Chinese New Hymnal; the Lord's Prayer as it is written in the Chinese Union Version; the Apostles' Creed; Canaan Hymns |
| Christian Groups Registered with the State | The Catholic Patriotic Association; the China Christian Council; the Protestant Three-Self Patriotic Movement |
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What You'll Learn
Protestant and Catholic names for God
The name of God in Christianity is often a complex and nuanced topic, with various names and titles being used in different contexts and traditions. In this response, we will explore the names of God as understood and used within Protestant and Catholic contexts, specifically.
Protestant Names for God
Protestant Christians, like their Catholic counterparts, acknowledge and utilise various names for God in their theology and worship. One of the most common names for God in the Protestant tradition is "Jehovah" or "Yahweh". This name is derived from the four Hebrew consonants YHWH, often referred to as the Tetragrammaton. The pronunciation and usage of this name have been a subject of debate among biblical scholars. Some argue for the pronunciation "Yahweh", while others suggest "Jehovah". The name Jehovah appears in Protestant Bible translations such as the King James Version and is also used by denominations like the Jehovah's Witnesses.
Another name for God in the Protestant tradition is "Adonai", which is a Hebrew word meaning "Lord" or "my Lord". This name is used as a substitute for YHWH in Jewish Scripture readings and is found in Protestant Bibles as well. Additionally, "Elohim" is another significant name for God in Protestantism. It is derived from the root "Eloah" and is often associated with God's strength, might, and ability to judge.
Catholic Names for God
Catholics, similarly, recognise multiple names for God and navigate their usage with care and respect. While Catholics acknowledge "Yahweh" as the likely correct pronunciation of YHWH, they generally refrain from using this name in public worship out of respect for Jewish traditions and uncertainties regarding pronunciation. Instead, Catholics often use titles like "Lord" or "God" in their liturgy and hymns. Pope Benedict XVI specifically requested that Catholics stop using "Yahweh" in public worship.
In Catholic theology and devotion, "Adonai" holds significance as a substitute for the divine name, YHWH, in Jewish Scripture readings. Catholics also recognise "El" or "Elohim" as names for God, reflecting his strength and majesty. Additionally, Catholics, like Protestants, may use "Jehovah" in certain contexts, such as in hymns like "Guide Me, O Thou Great Jehovah".
Both Protestant and Catholic Christians draw on a rich tapestry of names and titles for God, each carrying its own theological and historical weight. While there are some differences in usage between the two traditions, there is also significant overlap, reflecting a shared heritage and understanding of the divine.
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History of Protestantism in China
Protestantism first came to China in the early 19th century, with the arrival of Robert Morrison of the London Missionary Society in Macau in 1807. Under the "fundamental laws" of China, one section addresses "Wizards, Witches, and all Superstitions, prohibited." In 1814, the Jiaqing Emperor added a clause that sentenced Europeans to death for spreading Christianity among Han Chinese and Manchus. Christians who did not repent their conversion were sent to Muslim cities in Xinjiang to be given as slaves.
In the 1860s, Protestant missions were limited to five coastal cities. However, by the end of the century, thousands of missionaries from new missionary societies in the United States and Great Britain were working in all parts of China due to the unequal treaties that forced the Chinese government to admit them. Hudson Taylor, who arrived in China in 1854, was considered one of the greatest missionaries of all time. By 1865, when Taylor's China Inland Mission began, 30 different Protestant groups were active in China.
Protestant missionaries played a significant role in China's modernization. They established schools, introduced modern medicine, and opposed practices such as foot binding and the opium trade. They also contributed to charitable work, providing food, medicine, and clothing to those in need.
In 1949, the establishment of the People's Republic of China resulted in widespread religious repression. The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) declared itself atheist, and Maoist Thought became the dominant ideology. By 1951, all Protestant missionaries had left mainland China. However, the religion had already taken root, and by 1979, the first Protestant church reopened in Shanghai, followed by several others.
Since then, Protestantism has experienced explosive growth in post-Mao China due to the dissolution of local social and cultural resistance and the market-oriented economic reforms that created an environment conducive to its expansion. There has been a significant increase in Christian believers, with the number of Chinese Protestants growing by an average of 10% annually since 1979. By 2018, there were an estimated 38 million Protestants in China, and the country is projected to have the world's largest Christian population by 2030.
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History of Catholicism in China
The history of Catholicism in China is a long and complex one, dating back to the arrival of the first Christian missionaries during the Tang dynasty. Over the centuries, the presence of Catholicism in China has been shaped by periods of growth and persecution, with the religion taking root and expanding amid challenges from changing political and cultural landscapes.
The Early Years
During the Tang dynasty, the earliest Christian missionaries from the Church of the East introduced Christianity to China, referring to their religion as "Jingjiao" or "Bright Teaching." Catholic missionaries, who arrived later, used the term "Shangdi," meaning "The Emperor from Above," while others coined the term "Tianzhu," or "Lord of Heaven," which became more dominant.
The 13th Century
In the 13th century, Catholic missionary priests from Europe, particularly the Franciscan order, entered China. The Italian Franciscan priest John of Montecorvino arrived in Khanbaliq (present-day Beijing) in 1294 and built a church. He translated the New Testament and the Psalms into the local language and is believed to have converted thousands by 1300. In 1307, Pope Clement V sent Franciscan bishops to consecrate John of Montecorvino as Archbishop of Peking, solidifying the Catholic presence in China.
The Ming Dynasty
The Ming Dynasty witnessed a decline in the Church of the East in China, with the expulsion of Christians during this period. However, in the 16th century, the Catholic Church gained a significant following among the native Chinese population.
The 19th Century
The 19th century marked a period of increased Catholic missionary activity in China, particularly by the Jesuits, who were invited back to the country by the Jiangnan Christians. This era is often characterised as an invasion of China, with missionaries attempting to introduce Western religion and culture. It also saw the emergence of an indigenous Catholic church in China, despite resistance from some European Catholics.
The 20th Century
The 20th century was a tumultuous period for Catholicism in China, marked by expulsions, anti-Catholic campaigns, and religious persecution. The establishment of the Communist government in 1949 brought pressure on the Roman Catholic Church, with the expulsion of the papal nuncio, Archbishop Riberi, in 1951. The government formed the Three Autonomies Movement to organise the clergy to abandon the Holy See, leading to the arrest and imprisonment of many bishops, priests, and laypersons. The Vatican-recognised Roman Catholic Church effectively operated as an underground church.
Recent Times
In recent decades, there has been a reported growth in the Catholic population in China, despite ongoing religious persecution. The Chinese government continues to regulate religious activities, allowing only government-sanctioned organisations and registered places of worship. The Catholic Patriotic Association, established in 1957, oversees all Catholic activities, and while there have been efforts by bishops to seek papal approval, the relationship between the Vatican and China remains complex.
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Government control of religion
The People's Republic of China is officially an atheist state, but the government recognizes five religions: Buddhism, Taoism, Catholicism, Islam, and Protestantism. However, the Chinese government has been ranked among the world's most restrictive when it comes to religious freedom.
Since Xi Jinping came to power in 2013, the government has tightened control over religious practices. Xi has called for the "'Sinicization' of religions," urging religious groups to adapt their doctrines, customs, and morality to align with Chinese culture and socialism. This campaign particularly affects "'foreign'" religions, with leaders of Protestantism, Catholicism, and Islam expected to pledge loyalty to the state.
One way the government exerts control over religion is by requiring all religious institutions to uphold the leadership of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and implement "Xi Jinping Thought." The CCP prohibits its members from joining any religion, adhering to the Marxist view that religion is a temporary phenomenon that will disappear as societies progress. While China's constitution guarantees freedom of religious belief, authorities closely monitor religious activity.
Christianity in China is governed by specific rules. Christians are allowed to worship in "official churches" registered with government agencies, but many prefer underground churches. The government has banned evangelization online, shut down unregistered churches, and arrested church leaders. Since 2018, China has stepped up efforts to bring Catholic churches into the official system, intensifying pressure on those that refuse.
The government has also targeted large Protestant churches with steeples and crosses, demolishing some. Unauthorized Protestant meeting points and underground Catholic churches have faced increased harassment. Additionally, Chinese people over 18 are only allowed to join Christian groups registered with one of three state-controlled bodies: the Chinese Catholic Patriotic Association, the China Christian Council, or the Protestant Three-Self Patriotic Movement.
It's worth noting that Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism have also faced scrutiny, though to a lesser extent. The government has addressed issues like commercialization and misconduct in these communities. Meanwhile, Tibetan Buddhists have been subjected to "political re-education" campaigns to discourage loyalty to the exiled Dalai Lama.
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Underground churches
The term "underground church" in China refers to religious gatherings that choose not to associate with the state-sanctioned Catholic Patriotic Association. "Underground" does not mean that the church is secret, but rather that it lacks official approval and support. These churches are also called "loyal churches" and came into existence in the 1950s after the Chinese Communist Party's proclamation of the People's Republic of China, due to the severing of ties between Chinese Catholics and the Holy See.
Protestant churches that have not joined the state-sanctioned Protestant church, the Three-Self Patriotic Movement, are generally termed "house churches" rather than underground churches. However, the Chinese government has recently tightened control over Christian activities outside of registered venues, banned unauthorized evangelization online, and intensified its crackdown on unauthorized Protestant meeting points and underground Catholic churches.
Unregistered house churches have become government targets, with raids on Sunday services and small groups becoming a common occurrence. Online worship or prayer meetings are often disrupted by police, and hotels fear leasing space to churches due to the government's reprisal. The level of surveillance imposed on churches increased during the COVID-19 pandemic, with local authorities demanding churches install CCTVs with facial recognition technology.
Despite the crackdown, the underground church in China is growing in size and its defiance of government regulations. Many unregistered house churches have started to break the self-imposed rules on attendance restrictions.
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Frequently asked questions
Yes, both religions are practiced in China.
Protestantism arrived in China in the 19th century, while Catholicism arrived in the 16th century.
The term Shangdi (Highest Emperor) is commonly used by Protestants to refer to God, while Catholics typically use the term Tianzhu (Lord of Heaven). The Chinese names for these denominations are Jīdū jiào xīn jiào (New Christian Religion) and Tiānzhǔ jiào (Heavenly Lord Religion), respectively.
The Chinese government has tightened control over Christian activities, targeting unregistered churches, and intensifying its crackdown on unauthorized Protestant meeting points and underground Catholic churches. Since 2018, there has been a campaign of suppression targeting large churches of both denominations.
