Michael Brooks
Catholicism has had a long history in China, dating back to the Tang dynasty. While it is not illegal to be Catholic in China, the country has been ranked among the world's most restrictive governments when it comes to religious policies. The Chinese government officially recognizes Catholicism as one of the five religions in the country, but it closely monitors religious activities and has implemented policies that require religious groups to align their doctrines, customs, and morality with Chinese culture. This has resulted in increased pressure on Catholic churches to join the official system and intensified crackdowns on those that refuse. Catholics who do not comply with government guidelines face severe consequences, including raids, fines, imprisonment, and torture.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Catholicism in China | Recognized by the Chinese government |
| Catholic churches in China | Most numerous in the northern province of Hebei (13%) |
| Catholic churches in China | Many are unauthorized and known as "underground churches" or "house churches" |
| Catholic Church in China | The government has shut down churches that refuse to register |
| Catholic Church in China | The government has stepped up efforts to bring churches into the official system |
| Catholic Church in China | The government has intensified its pressure on churches that refuse to join |
| Catholic Church in China | The government considers the part of the church that is still underground illegal |
| Catholic Church in China | Catholic services must be conducted in private homes and in secret |
| Catholic Church in China | Catholic adherents are expected to prioritize Chinese traditions and show loyalty to the state |
| Catholic Church in China | Catholic adherents face risks of fines, imprisonment, house arrest, torture, and labor camp internment |
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What You'll Learn
- Catholicism is one of China's five officially recognised religions
- The Chinese government considers the Roman Catholic Church illegal
- Catholic churches have been shut down for refusing to register
- Catholics in China face restrictions and persecution
- Catholicism has been present in China since the early medieval period
Catholicism is one of China's five officially recognised religions
The history of Catholicism in China is long and complex. The Catholic Church first entered China during the Tang dynasty, although it did not gain many native Chinese followers until the 16th century during the Ming dynasty. The Jesuits played a significant role in introducing Catholicism to China, and the religion was patronised by the emperors of the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. However, the Rites Controversy of the late 17th and early 18th centuries led to the expulsion of missionaries from most of China and made it difficult for the Catholic Church to access the country.
In the 19th century, Catholic missions in China attracted small but influential followings, and independent Chinese churches were established. However, the Catholic Church continued to face challenges in the country. In 1949, China turned Communist, and the new government immediately began putting pressure on the Church. The papal nuncio, Archbishop Riberi, was expelled from China in 1951, and the government formed the Three Autonomies Movement to organise the clergy to abandon the Holy See.
Today, Catholicism in China is divided between the government-established Chinese Catholic Patriotic Association (CCPA) and the Roman Catholic Church (RCC), which is considered illegal and forced underground. Catholics who are part of the RCC must conduct religious services in private homes and in secret, risking fines, imprisonment, and even torture. The Chinese government has also been known to demolish churches and remove crosses to make them look more Chinese, as part of a campaign to prioritise Chinese traditions and show loyalty to the state.
While Catholicism is officially recognised in China, the government closely polices religious activity, and Catholics in the country continue to face challenges and restrictions on their religious practices.
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The Chinese government considers the Roman Catholic Church illegal
Catholicism has a long history in China, dating back to the 13th century when Franciscan missionaries first entered the country. However, despite its long presence, the Chinese government has had a complex and often tense relationship with the Catholic Church, particularly the Roman Catholic Church, which is still considered illegal and forced underground.
The Catholic Church first entered China during the Tang dynasty and gained a significant following during the Ming dynasty in the 16th century, mainly through the efforts of Jesuit missionaries. However, a dispute over the acceptance of Confucian rituals led to a ban by Pope Clement XI in 1704 and the eventual collapse of the missions in China.
In the 19th century, following the First Opium War, China was forced to permit foreign missionaries, leading to a sustained diplomatic dispute between France and the Holy See over authority over Chinese Catholics. During this period, Catholic missionaries and their families were also targeted during the Boxer Rebellion.
After China turned Communist in 1949, the new government immediately began putting pressure on the Roman Catholic Church. The papal nuncio, Archbishop Riberi, was expelled in 1951, and the government formed the "Three Autonomies Movement" to encourage clergy to abandon the Holy See. This led to mass arrests of bishops, priests, and laypersons, with many dying in jail.
In response to the government's actions, the Catholic Church in China split into two: the government-established Chinese Catholic Patriotic Association (CCPA) and the Roman Catholic Church (RCC), which continued to operate illegally and underground. Those who refuse to join the official system face severe consequences, including raids, heavy fines, imprisonment, torture, and the revocation of priestly titles.
While the Chinese constitution guarantees "freedom of religious beliefs" and recognizes Catholicism as one of five official religions, the government closely monitors religious activity and enforces a policy of "Sinicization," requiring religious groups to align their doctrines and practices with Chinese culture and socialist values. This has resulted in the removal of crosses from churches and the demolition of domes and minarets from mosques to make them appear more Chinese.
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Catholic churches have been shut down for refusing to register
China's constitution states that its citizens are free to practise any of the five officially recognized religions: Buddhism, Catholicism, Islam, Protestantism, and Daoism (or Taoism). However, the government closely monitors religious activity and has been ranked among the world's most restrictive governments by the Pew Research Center.
Since 2013, the government has tightened control over Christian activities outside of registered venues, arresting church leaders and holding some Christians in internment camps. The government has also banned evangelization online and shut down churches that refuse to register with the state.
In December 2019, the Religious Affairs Bureau of Qishan County, administered by the city of Baoji in Shaanxi Province, ordered the demolition of a Catholic church in Luojiazhuang village. The church was targeted for refusing to register with the state and was razed to the ground despite being built with funds collected by local Catholics.
In March 2019, a Catholic church in Nanyang, Henan Province, was raided by seven local government officials for operating without a license. During the raid, officials smashed furniture and ransacked the priest's residence, confiscating more than 400 Bibles, loudspeakers, and other valuables.
In October 2019, the government of Baochang town in Inner Mongolia shut down four Catholic churches within ten days for refusing to be governed by the state. Law enforcement officers ordered the churches to stop all activities, remove religious symbols, and seal off the buildings.
These incidents are part of a broader campaign by the Chinese government to align religious doctrines, customs, and morality with Chinese culture, a policy known as "Sinicization." This campaign particularly affects foreign" religions such as Catholicism, whose adherents are expected to prioritize Chinese traditions and demonstrate loyalty to the state. As a result, authorities have removed crosses from churches, altered the appearance of mosques, and pressured religious leaders to emphasize teachings that reflect socialist values.
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Catholics in China face restrictions and persecution
While China's constitution guarantees "freedom of religious beliefs" and the country officially recognizes five religions, including Catholicism, in practice, Chinese Catholics face restrictions and persecution. The government closely monitors religious activity and has implemented a policy of ""Sinicization," requiring religious groups to align their doctrines, customs, and morality with Chinese culture and socialist values. This has resulted in the removal of crosses from churches and the demolition of domes and minarets from mosques to make them appear more Chinese.
Since 2013, the government has tightened control over Christian activities outside of registered venues, banned unauthorized evangelization online, and cracked down on unauthorized Protestant meeting points and underground Catholic churches. The Catholic Church in China is effectively split between the government-established Chinese Catholic Patriotic Association (CCPA) and the Roman Catholic Church (RCC), which is considered illegal and forced underground. Catholics who worship in unauthorized venues, often referred to as "house churches," risk fines, imprisonment, torture, and internment in labor camps.
The Chinese government has also arrested prominent church leaders and reportedly held some Christians in internment camps. In 1955, a mass arrest took place in the Shanghai diocese, with over 200 clergy and faithful, including Bishop Ignatius Kung, arrested for refusing to support the Three Autonomies movement to be independent of the Holy See. Many bishops and priests who resisted government control died in jail.
The Vatican and China signed an agreement in 2018 regarding bishop appointments to alleviate tensions for Chinese Catholics. However, the Chinese government has intensified pressure on churches that refuse to join the official system. Accurate data on Chinese Christians is challenging to obtain, but some estimates suggest that there were around 3 million Catholics in China before 1949, and their numbers have likely increased with the easing of restrictions on religious activities in recent decades.
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Catholicism has been present in China since the early medieval period
While China's constitution guarantees "freedom of religious beliefs" to its citizens, the government closely monitors religious activity. The country officially recognizes five religions: Buddhism, Catholicism, Islam, Protestantism, and Daoism (or Taoism).
In the 13th century, Italian Franciscan Father John of Montecorvino became the first Catholic missionary to China, marking the beginning of the second evangelization. In 1307, Pope Clement V made Father John an archbishop, recognizing his success in converting some high-level Chinese officials, baptizing about 6,000 people, and erecting churches. The early presence of Catholicism in China resulted in a fascinating process of cultural and artistic hybridization, as evidenced by the creation of Christian works of art using the cloisonné technique.
In the 16th century, Italian Jesuit Fathers Michele Ruggieri and Matteo Ricci took up residence in Zhaozhou, initially dressing as Buddhist monks and later as Confucian scholars. They gained respect and protection from Confucian literati by showcasing scientific instruments from the West. The Jesuits also promoted artistic hybridization, such as Chinese Christian cloisonné productions. However, the introduction of the Franciscans and other missionary orders led to a long-running controversy over Chinese customs and names for God.
In the early 19th century, Protestant missions in China attracted small but influential followings, and independent Chinese churches were established. By 1949, there were an estimated 4 million Christians in China, including 3 million Catholics and 1 million Protestants. The number of Christians in China has grown significantly since the easing of restrictions on religious activities during the economic reforms of the late 1970s.
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Frequently asked questions
No, it is not illegal to be Catholic in China. China's constitution states that ordinary citizens enjoy "freedom of religious beliefs" and the government officially recognizes five religions, one of which is Catholicism. However, the government closely polices religious activity and has been known to restrict the activities of Catholics.
The Chinese government has been known to shut down Catholic churches that refuse to register and has arrested prominent church leaders. Since 2013, the government has also banned evangelization online and tightened control over Christian activities outside of registered venues. Catholics who do not submit to government guidelines may face surprise raids, heavy fines, imprisonment, torture, and even revocation of priestly/episcopal titles.
Catholicism has been present in China since the early medieval period and became significant during the early modern era. Accurate data on Chinese Christians is difficult to access, but there were an estimated 3 million Catholics in China before 1949. Since the easing of restrictions on religious activities in the late 1970s, the number of Chinese Christians is believed to have increased significantly.
The Chinese government has pursued a policy of "Sinicization," which requires religious groups to align their doctrines, customs, and morality with Chinese culture. This has particularly affected "foreign" religions, including Catholicism, whose adherents are expected to prioritize Chinese traditions and show loyalty to the state. The government has removed crosses from churches and altered the appearance of mosques and temples to make them more Chinese.
