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The French Wars of Religion, which took place between 1562 and 1598, were a series of civil wars between French Catholics and Protestants (Huguenots) that resulted in millions of deaths. The conflict was influenced by international events, such as the revolt of the gueux, subjects of Philip II of Spain in the Netherlands, and the Huguenots' foreign alliances with the Prince of Orange and Elizabeth of England. The Battle of Ivry in 1590 was a victory for the Catholics, and the wars concluded in 1598 when Henry IV, a former Protestant who converted to Catholicism, issued the Edict of Nantes, which granted substantial rights and freedoms to the Huguenots. However, Catholics continued to disapprove of Protestants and of Henry, and his assassination in 1610 triggered a fresh round of Huguenot rebellions in the 1620s.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Number of deaths in the French Wars of Religion | Between two and four million |
| Date of French Wars of Religion | 1562 to 1598 |
| Deaths in Toulouse street battles | Over 3,000 |
| Deaths at the hands of Catholic mobs in Sens, Cahors, Carcassonne, Tours and elsewhere | Not specified |
| Deaths in the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre | Between 5,000 and 30,000 |
| Date of Schmalkaldic War | 1546 to 1547 |
| Date of Sonderbund War | 1847 |
| Date of Toggenburg War | 1712 |
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What You'll Learn
French Wars of Religion (1562-1598)
The French Wars of Religion (1562–1598) were a series of civil wars between French Catholics and Protestants (Huguenots). The spread of French Calvinism persuaded the French ruler Catherine de Médicis to show more tolerance for the Huguenots, which angered the powerful Catholic Guise family. The wars were also driven by a struggle for power between rival factions, which emerged after the death of Henry II of France in July 1559.
The wars began with the massacre of Vassy (or Wassy) in 1562, when the Duke of Guise massacred around 100 Protestants attending a service in a barn in the town of Wassy. This event caused an uprising in the provinces, and many skirmishes followed. The St. Bartholomew's Day massacre in 1572 was another notorious episode, with Catholic mobs killing between 5,000 and 30,000 Protestants throughout France.
The wars ended in 1598 with the Edict of Nantes, which granted substantial rights and freedoms to the Huguenots, and established a limited civil tolerance. The edict was signed by Henry IV, who had converted to Catholicism in 1593 and was proclaimed King of France in 1598. However, Catholics continued to disapprove of Protestants and of Henry, and his assassination in 1610 triggered a fresh round of Huguenot rebellions in the 1620s.
The French Wars of Religion resulted in a high number of deaths, with between two and four million people dying from violence, famine, or disease directly caused by the conflict. The wars also severely damaged the power of the French monarchy, and the country's influence as a major European power.
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Schmalkaldic War (1546-1547)
The Schmalkaldic War, fought between July 1546 and April/May 1547, was a conflict between the Protestant Schmalkaldic League and the Catholic armies of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor. The war was fought within the territories of the Holy Roman Empire, with the forces of Charles V allied with those of Maurice, Duke of Saxony. The Schmalkaldic League was a German Protestant military federation that included Lutheran princes and cities. The war was a result of religious tensions between Protestant and Catholic states within the Empire, with the Protestant states resisting the Catholic Church's attempts to suppress the Protestant Reformation.
The immediate cause of the war was the refusal of the Schmalkaldic League to recognise the authority of the Augsburg Interim, a temporary religious settlement imposed by Charles V. This was seen as an act of rebellion against the Emperor, leading to the outbreak of hostilities. The war began in Swabia when a united army of several Lutheran Imperial cities occupied the Catholic town of Füssen, forcing Imperial forces to move towards the fortress of Ingolstadt in the Bavarian duchy. The Schmalkaldic League was initially successful, winning several key battles. However, the tide turned in April 1547 when their leader, John Frederick I of Saxony, was captured at the Battle of Mühlberg.
The outcome of the war was a temporary victory for the Catholic forces, and Charles V was able to impose the Augsburg Interim, reasserting his authority over the Protestant states. However, this victory was short-lived, and the war severely weakened Charles V's position. He was ultimately unable to prevent the spread of Protestantism within the Empire, and in 1555, the Peace of Augsburg was signed, recognising the right of each ruler within the Holy Roman Empire to determine the religion of their territory.
The exact number of deaths resulting from the Schmalkaldic War is unclear, but the conflict involved significant military engagements and the mobilisation of large armies. Charles V gathered an army of around 52,000 men for his campaign, and the Battle of Mühlberg was a decisive victory for the Catholic forces, leading to the capture of John Frederick I.
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St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre (1572)
The St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre, which took place on 24 August 1572, was a significant event in the history of France, marking a violent clash between Catholics and Protestants (Huguenots). The massacre was the culmination of a series of events that began with the Peace of Saint-Germain-en-Laye in 1570, which ended the third War of Religion. This peace, however, was fragile as many Catholics refused to accept it.
The tension escalated with the marriage between Henry III of Navarre, a Huguenot, and Margaret of Valois on 18 August 1572, which brought a large number of Huguenot nobility to Paris. Four days later, on 22 August, there was an unsuccessful attempt on the life of Admiral Gaspard de Coligny, a Huguenot leader who advocated for war against Spain to prevent civil war. Fearing that her involvement in the plot would be exposed, Catherine de' Medici, the queen mother, conspired with a group of nobles to exterminate the Huguenot leaders who remained in Paris for the wedding celebrations. With the approval of her son, King Charles IX, orders were given to the Paris municipality on the night of 23 August.
The massacre began in Paris, with the assassination of leading Protestants, and quickly spread throughout France. Catholic mobs killed between 5,000 and 25,000 to 30,000 Protestants, according to various estimates. The death toll included the prominent Huguenot leader, Admiral Coligny, whose severed head was displayed to the Paris mob and allegedly sent to Pope Gregory XIII. The massacre was celebrated by the Pope, who commissioned artworks and medals commemorating the event and depicting the "overthrow of the Huguenots".
The St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre had far-reaching consequences. It revived hatred between Catholics and Huguenots, leading to a renewal of hostilities. The Huguenots abandoned their obedience to the royal authority and adopted more radical views, including the justification of rebellion and tyrannicide under certain circumstances. The massacre also resulted in a significant decrease in the Protestant population of France, with many fleeing the country or converting to Catholicism. The event highlighted the failure of the French monarchy to maintain order and the deep religious divisions that plagued the nation during the French Wars of Religion (1562-1598).
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First War of Villmergen (1656)
The First War of Villmergen was a Swiss religious war fought between the Protestant cantons of Zürich and Bern and the Catholic cantons of Central Switzerland. Lasting from 5 January until 7 March 1656, the war was a result of the Protestant cantons' attempts to break the Catholic cantons' political hegemony, which had been in place since the Second Kappel Landfrieden of 1531.
The conflict was sparked by the expulsion and execution of Protestants from the Schwyz commune of Arth. In 1655, the canton of Schwyz, which had chosen to remain Catholic, started prosecuting and turning over to the Inquisition in Milan those Protestant families who had stayed in the commune. Some of these Protestants were beheaded, while the property of those who fled to Zurich was confiscated. Zurich demanded compensation for the confiscated property and the return of the refugees, but Schwyz demanded the return of the refugees. Despite warnings from Bern and Zurich, four Protestants in Schwyz were executed, and three others were delivered to the Inquisition in Milan. This led to Zurich urging Bern to declare war on the Catholic cantons, with Zurich demanding punishment, formal apologies, and the dissolution of the Golden League.
On 6 January 1656, Zurich and Bern declared war, with the Catholic cantons promising their support to Schwyz. Bern promised military support to Zurich, while Schaffhausen provided troops for defence. Basel, Fribourg, Solothurn, Appenzell Ausserrhoden, Glarus, the Three Leagues, and St. Gallen remained neutral. On 24 January 1656, the Battle of Villmergen took place, with Lucernese and Zuger troops launching a surprise attack on Erlach's Bernese army. Despite their inferior numbers and weaponry, the Catholics were able to repel the Protestants due to a lack of coordination among the Bernese troops. This prevented the Protestants from occupying the Freie Ämter, which separated Bern and Zurich.
After a failed final assault on Rapperswil on 3 February, peace talks were initiated, mediated by the cantons of Fribourg, Solothurn, Basel, and Schaffhausen, as well as foreign diplomats like the French ambassador Jean de La Barde. Smaller skirmishes and attacks on the populace continued during this period. The war ended on 7 March 1656, with the Third Landfrieden restoring the pre-war balance of power and confirming the political dominance of the Catholic cantons.
The First War of Villmergen was followed by the Toggenburg War in 1712, also known as the Second War of Villmergen, which marked the end of Catholic hegemony in the Swiss Confederation.
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Sonderbund War (1847)
The Sonderbund War was a civil war in Switzerland that took place in 1847. It lasted for about three weeks, from November 3 to November 29, and resulted in fewer than 100 casualties. The war was fought between the Protestant Swiss liberals, who sought a revised constitution, stronger central government, freedom of worship, and secular education, and the Catholic Swiss conservatives, who resisted these changes. The liberals wanted to expel the Jesuits, which was supported by Lord Palmerston, the Prime Minister of Britain, but opposed by Austria and France, who were conservative Catholic powers at the time.
The Sonderbund ("Separatist League") was formed in 1845 by seven Catholic Swiss cantons: Lucern, Uri, Schwyz, Unterwalden, Fribourg, Zujg, and Valais. They sought to protect Catholic interests and prevent further federalization, and they refused to dissolve when ordered to do so by the Swiss Diet in 1847. Instead, they took up arms and appealed for outside help, which came from France, who saw an ally in the region as useful in their rivalry against Austria.
The federal army, led by General Guillaume Henri Dufour, had about 94,000 to 100,000 men. Dufour had been a veteran of Napoleon's army and devised a plan to attack the isolated canton of Fribourg first. He then marched his troops along all five roads leading toward Lucerne, intending to show his full force and intimidate the population of the canton. Despite this show of force, Dufour insisted that the defeated be treated with kindness and that Catholic churches and private property be respected.
The Sonderbund forces, led by Colonel Jean-Ulrich de Salis-Soglio, were far outnumbered on the battlefield. They surrendered without much resistance, and the war ended on November 29 with the surrender of Valais, the last member of the Sonderbund. The federal army had lost 78 men killed and had 260 wounded, while the Sonderbund losses were even lower: 33 killed and 124 wounded. The war resulted in the resignation of the Sonderbund governments and the rise to power of the Liberals in Fribourg, Lucerne, and Valais.
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Frequently asked questions
Between two and four million people died from violence, famine or disease as a direct result of the conflict.
The St Bartholomew's Day Massacre in Paris in 1572 resulted in Catholic mobs killing between 5,000 and 30,000 Protestants throughout France.
Yes, in Toulouse, local Huguenots seized the Hôtel de ville but were met with resistance from Catholic mobs, resulting in street battles and over 3,000 deaths, mostly Huguenots.
Yes, there were several other conflicts between Catholics and Protestants in Europe, including the First War of Villmergen in 1656, the Toggenburg War in 1712, and the Sonderbund War of 1847.
