Ethan Walker
China has a small Catholic minority, with roughly a quarter of the country's Catholics living in the northern province of Hebei, where they tend to cluster in rural Catholic villages. The exact number of Catholics in China is difficult to determine, with estimates ranging from 3% to 8% of the population. The Chinese government has tightened control over Christian activities outside of registered venues and banned unauthorized evangelization online, making it challenging to practice Christianity and Catholicism in the country.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Percentage of Chinese adults who believe in Jesus Christ and/or Tianzhu | 7% or 81 million adults |
| Percentage of Chinese adults with some degree of connection to Christianity | 8% |
| Chinese Catholics living in the northern province of Hebei | 25% |
| Underground Catholic churches | Present |
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What You'll Learn
- China's Catholics tend to cluster in rural Catholic villages in the north
- The government has tightened control over Christian activities outside of registered venues
- The Catholic Church first entered China in the 13th century
- Pope Francis has compromised on religious freedom in China
- Catholics in the state-controlled Church lose respect for clergy seen as too aligned with government policy
China's Catholics tend to cluster in rural Catholic villages in the north
Christianity is a sensitive topic in China, with the government tightening control over Christian activities outside of registered venues and banning unauthorized evangelization online. The country has a long history with the religion, dating back to the arrival of the earliest Christian missionaries from the Church of the East during the Tang dynasty. These missionaries referred to their religion using the Chinese characters "Jǐngjiào" (bright teaching). Over time, Catholic missionaries and scholars introduced new terms, such as "Shàngdì" (The Emperor from Above) and "Tiānzhǔ" (Lord of Heaven), with the latter becoming the dominant usage.
Despite historical tensions and challenges, Christianity has maintained a presence in China. In 2018, the CFPS survey found that 7% of Chinese adults, or roughly 81 million people, reported believing in Jesus Christ and/or Tianzhu (the word Chinese Catholics use for God). However, this figure includes those who also believe in non-Christian deities. When considering only those who believe in Jesus Christ or Tianzhu exclusively, the share of the population decreases to about 3%.
Estimating the number of Catholics in China is a complex task due to geographic concentration and sampling coverage issues. Nonetheless, it is estimated that roughly a quarter of China's Catholics reside in the northern province of Hebei, clustering in rural "Catholic villages" where the majority of residents follow Catholicism. Hebei Province had the largest Catholic Christian population in China, with 1 million church members as of 2017, according to local government data.
The distribution of Catholics in China is uneven, with the coastal regions of Fujian and Zhejiang also hosting significant Catholic populations, at 12% each. Historically, Catholic institutions have been dominant in the North and Central regions of the country. Additionally, the Catholic Church is permitted to operate freely in Macau and Hong Kong, where prominent figures such as the current chief executive, John Lee Ka-chiu, identify as Catholic.
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The government has tightened control over Christian activities outside of registered venues
Christianity has been present in China since the early medieval period, with the Church of the East arriving in the 7th century during the Tang dynasty. The number of Christians in China has been increasing, with an estimated 67 million Christians in the country, including those in unofficial churches. However, the Chinese government has tightened control over Christian activities in recent years, particularly those outside of registered venues.
The Communist Party of China remains officially atheist and has been intolerant of churches outside of party control. While there was increased tolerance for unregistered churches in the late 1970s, the government has recently intensified its crackdown on unauthorized Protestant meeting points and underground Catholic churches. The government has banned evangelization online and shut down churches that refuse to register.
Christianity in China is governed by several sets of rules and policies. Christians are allowed to worship in "official churches" registered with supervisory government agencies responsible for Protestantism and Catholicism. However, many Christians refuse this oversight and worship in underground churches. The government has been working to bring Catholic churches into the official system, but many congregations remain fully faithful to the Pope in Rome and refuse to register as part of the Catholic Patriotic Church.
The Chinese government has also pursued a policy of "'Sinicization,'" which requires religious groups to align their doctrines, customs, and morality with Chinese culture. This campaign particularly affects "foreign" religions, including Catholicism, whose adherents are expected to prioritize Chinese traditions and show loyalty to the state. As part of this campaign, authorities have removed crosses from churches and altered the architecture of mosques to make them look more Chinese. The government has also called for the "'Sinicization of religions,'" a strategy that further affects non-traditional belief systems such as Christianity and Islam.
The Chinese government closely regulates religious activity and has specific policies and restrictions in place for religious groups. While there is little exact data on religious affiliation in China, the government has been working to register and supervise religious venues and activities, particularly those that fall outside of the officially recognized religions.
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The Catholic Church first entered China in the 13th century
The Catholic Church, the world's oldest continuously functioning international institution, first entered China in the 13th century. The earliest Christian missionaries from the Church of the East, who referred to their religion as Jǐngjiào or "bright teaching", arrived in China during the Tang dynasty. The term Jǐngjiào was later replaced by Tiānzhǔ, which translates to "Lord of Heaven", and became the dominant usage.
The Italian Franciscan priest John of Montecorvino, who arrived in China in 1294, was the first Catholic missionary in the country. He built a church in 1299 and another in 1305 opposite the imperial palace. John of Montecorvino also translated the New Testament and the Psalms into the local language. By 1300, he had an estimated 6,000 to 30,000 converts. In 1307, Pope Clement V sent seven Franciscan bishops to consecrate John of Montecorvino as Archbishop of Peking. Three bishops survived the journey and succeeded each other as bishops at Zaiton, where John had established a church.
In 1312, three more Franciscan bishops arrived from Rome to aid John until his death in 1328. He converted Armenians in China and Alans in Beijing to Catholicism. The mission had some success during the rule of the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty, but various factors led to an ultimate shrinking of the mission. In 1338, representatives of the Great Khan (Toghon Temür) arrived in Europe, inviting the Pope to send priests for the local Christians.
Catholicism was one of the religions patronized by the emperors of the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty, but it did not take root in China until its reintroduction by the Jesuits during the 16th century. The Jesuits Matteo Ricci and Johann Adam Schall von Bell wrote Chinese catechisms and made influential converts, establishing Christian settlements throughout the country. Ricci also attempted to reconcile Christianity with the Classic Confucian texts, though he was hostile to Taoism and Buddhism. The Jesuits promoted artistic hybridization in China, such as Chinese Christian cloisonné productions.
In the 19th century, the Chinese government prohibited the spread of Christianity among Han Chinese and Manchus. Those who would not renounce their conversion were sent to Muslim cities in Xinjiang and given as slaves to Muslim leaders. The pace of missionary activity increased after the First Opium War in 1842, and Christian missionaries played a major role in the westernization of China during the 19th and 20th centuries.
Today, there are an estimated 8% of Chinese adults who have some degree of connection to Christianity, with roughly a quarter of China's Catholics living in the northern province of Hebei. However, the Chinese government has recently tightened control over Christian activities outside of registered venues and intensified its crackdown on underground Catholic churches.
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Pope Francis has compromised on religious freedom in China
Catholicism is one of five official religions recognized by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). However, Catholics are only legally allowed to practice a version of the religion monitored by the state through the Chinese Catholic Patriotic Association. In China, only churches authorized by the government are allowed to operate, and the government has tightened control over Christian activities outside of registered venues.
Pope Francis has been criticized for compromising on religious freedom in China. In 2018, Pope Francis approved a deal with Beijing over bishop nominations, which was one of the most divisive issues in Vatican-China relations since diplomatic ties were severed when the Communists came to power. The specifics of the deal have not been made public, but it reportedly includes a framework where Chinese authorities and local communities put forth names of new bishops for the Vatican to approve. This deal has been criticized for caving to Beijing's demands and selling out the underground faithful in China.
Pope Francis's efforts to repair the rocky relationship between the Vatican and China have been questioned by critics from both inside and outside the Catholic Church. Despite expressing his admiration for China and extending greetings to President Xi Jinping, Francis failed to speak out against the persecution of Uyghurs, Tibetans, Falun Gong practitioners, and Christians across China. He also never publicly prayed for Hong Kong's prominent Catholic political prisoner, Jimmy Lai, nor met with Lai's son.
Some have argued that Pope Francis's compromise with the CCP was a moral catastrophe and that the Vatican's China policy requires a wholesale review. The Sino-Vatican agreement, which remains secret despite being renewed three times, should be made public. Additionally, conditions should be set for its next renewal, currently scheduled for 2028.
While Pope Francis's motivations may have been to improve religious freedom for Catholics in China and unite the state-approved and underground congregations, his compromise with the CCP has raised concerns and led to criticism from human rights advocates and members of the Catholic Church.
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Catholics in the state-controlled Church lose respect for clergy seen as too aligned with government policy
China has a long history of Catholics and Catholic missionaries, dating back to the arrival of the Latin Catholic Church in the 13th century. Today, there are an estimated 10 million Catholics in China, with roughly a quarter of them living in the northern province of Hebei, often in rural "Catholic villages". However, the Catholic Church in China is facing significant challenges due to the state's tight control and efforts to "Sinicize" religion.
The Chinese government has a history of regulating and controlling religious activities, with only churches authorized by the government being allowed to operate officially. In recent years, the government has further tightened its control, cracking down on unauthorized gatherings and online evangelization. President Xi Jinping has called for the "Sinicization of religions," which aims to conform religious practices and beliefs to Chinese culture and the CCP's political agenda and Marxist vision. This has resulted in the removal of crosses from churches, the replacement of religious imagery with that of Xi Jinping, censorship of religious texts, and the mandating of CCP slogans within churches.
The Catholic Church in China is divided into two main groups: the state-controlled Church, overseen by the Chinese Catholic Patriotic Association, and the underground Church, which operates without government recognition. The state-controlled Church has a history of appointing bishops without Vatican approval, causing tension and the risk of schism. In 2018, Pope Francis negotiated an agreement with the Chinese government regarding the appointment of bishops, seeking to maintain unity within the Church. However, despite this agreement, the Chinese government has continued to appoint bishops without Vatican consultation and approval, and has taken actions against underground Catholic leaders who reject the state-controlled Church.
Catholics in the state-controlled Church are facing a crisis of faith and respect for their clergy, who are seen as too aligned with government policy. The government has pressured Catholics to break communion with the Vatican and renounce essential beliefs, such as the primacy of the Roman Pontiff. Clergy members are forced to preach CCP ideology and are required to display CCP slogans in churches. The Vatican's attempts to negotiate with the Chinese government and maintain unity within the Church have been criticized as compromising religious freedom and siding with a government that persecutes Christians.
The situation has led to a loss of respect for the clergy within the state-controlled Church, as they are seen as complicit in the government's efforts to control and suppress religious freedom. Catholics who choose to worship within the state-approved associations are subject to the CCP's mechanisms of control and interference, and those who practice underground face the threat of arrest and imprisonment under anti-cult provisions. The Chinese government's efforts to "Sinicize" religion and exert control over the Catholic Church have created a challenging and repressive environment for Catholics in China, leading to a complex and contentious relationship between the state, the Church, and the Vatican.
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Frequently asked questions
It is difficult to accurately estimate the number of Catholics in China due to the sensitive nature of Christianity in the country and the government's tight control over Christian activities outside of registered venues. However, according to the 2018 CFPS survey, about 7% of Chinese adults, or roughly 81 million people, believe in Jesus Christ and/or Tianzhu (the word Chinese Catholics use for God). Another source states that up to 8% of Chinese adults have some connection to Christianity.
Catholicism has a long history in China, with missionary priests of the Latin Catholic Church from Europe arriving as early as the late 13th century. Over time, there have been periods of tension and protest involving the Catholic Church in China, including a growing anti-Christian movement in the early 20th century. More recently, the government has cracked down on unauthorized Catholic churches, and the Vatican has faced challenges in balancing cooperation and confrontation with Beijing.
The Catholic Church in China faces challenges due to the government's tight control over religious activities. The government has implemented policies such as requiring underground clergy to register with civil authorities and endorsing the "Sinicization of religions," which particularly affects non-traditional belief systems like Christianity. These actions have led to concerns about limiting religious freedom and weakening the authority of the Church.
The Catholic Church in China is state-controlled, and Catholics in the official Church must worship in approved venues. However, there is also an underground Church that operates in unauthorized venues, facing persecution and worshipping in secret. The underground Church tends to have higher morale due to their uncompromising faith, while those in the official Church may experience discouragement and loss of respect for clergy seen as too aligned with government policies.
