Joshua Bennett
The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) has had a complex and often fraught relationship with the Catholic Church. The CCP's efforts to eradicate religion in favour of Marxist atheism have led to the persecution of Catholics and the establishment of two Catholic communities in China: the “Patriotic” Church, which operates with state approval, and the “Underground” Church, which professes loyalty to the Pope. While the exact number of Catholics who have died in Communist China is unknown, there is evidence of widespread persecution, arrests, imprisonment, and executions of Catholics who refused to comply with government campaigns and abandon their faith. The Catholic Church in China continues to face challenges, with the state appointing bishops and intervening in church policies, and religious freedom remains restricted to government-sanctioned organizations and registered places of worship.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Number of Catholics in China in 1949 | 4 million |
| Percentage of Catholics in China in 1949 | Less than 1% |
| Number of Catholics in China in 1949 according to Chinese government estimates | 2.7 million |
| Number of Catholics arrested, imprisoned, or killed in the early 1950s | Many |
| Number of Catholics arrested in Shanghai in 1955 | Over 200 |
| Number of bishops appointed under the framework established by the Holy See-China agreement since 2018 | 5 |
| Number of bishops needed in China according to Father Cervellera | 40 |
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What You'll Learn
Catholics persecuted by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP)
The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) has a history of persecuting Catholics in China, with the Catholic Church facing significant repression since the Mao Zedong era. The CCP has sought to exert control over the appointment of Catholic bishops and has targeted those who oppose their policies.
During the Chinese Civil War, Pope Pius XII forbade Chinese Catholics from joining the Communist Party or participating in its activities. In 1949, Communist forces captured the Nationalist capital, Nanjing, leading to the retreat of the Nationalist government to Guangzhou. Despite the papal instructions, the papal ambassador remained in Nanjing. Following the Communist victory, the CCP took steps to exert control over the Catholic Church in China.
In 1950, the Holy See stated that participation in certain CCP-related organizations would result in excommunication from the Church. This led to initiatives such as the "Guangyuan Declaration of Catholic Self-Reformation," which gained support from some Chinese Catholics. However, others within the Church, including apostolic nuncio Antonio Riberi, opposed these reforms. Riberi was subsequently arrested on allegations of colluding with American intelligence and plotting to kill Mao Zedong. He was deported to British Hong Kong, and China broke off diplomatic relations with the Holy See in 1951.
The Catholic Church in China then split into two communities: the "Patriotic" Church, which operates with the approval of Chinese authorities, and the Underground" Church, which remains loyal to the Pope. The Patriotic Church is supervised by the State Administration for Religious Affairs, merged into the United Front Work Department of the CCP in 2018. All legal worship must be conducted through state-approved churches belonging to the Chinese Catholic Patriotic Association (CCPA), which does not recognize the authority of the Pope.
The CCPA, established within the Chinese bureaucracy in 1957, asserts control over the appointment of bishops, a power that the Vatican claims as its prerogative. Bishops who refuse to submit to the CCPA face persecution, including lengthy imprisonment and torture. Since the 1990s, Beijing has employed more covert and less violent methods to evade Western scrutiny.
In recent years, the persecution of Catholic bishops in China has continued, with at least ten Vatican-approved bishops currently detained, missing, forced out of their positions, or under investigation. The CCP has used coercion and censorship to suppress dissent and control the narrative surrounding religious freedom in China.
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Catholics arrested, imprisoned, and killed
The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) has had a fraught relationship with the Catholic Church since it came to power in 1949. The Catholic Church in China is split into two communities: the "'Patriotic' Church, which operates with the approval of the Chinese government, and the "'Underground' Church, which is loyal to the Pope.
The CCP, which is officially atheist, has long been hostile to religion, seeing it as a threat to its power. While the CCP did not seek to systematically destroy religion, it did require religious organizations to submit to the direction of the Chinese state. Many Catholics refused to comply with government campaigns to eliminate foreign influence and nationalize private schools, and were arrested, imprisoned, or killed as a result.
In 1949, when the CCP came to power, there were an estimated four million Catholics in China. The CCP began to persecute Catholics as agents of foreign imperialism, and broader efforts to eradicate all religion in favor of Marxist atheism began in the 1950s. In 1951, the papal nuncio, Archbishop Riberi, was expelled from China, and by 1953, many Chinese and foreign bishops, priests, and laypersons had been arrested. Many died in jail. In 1955, a mass arrest took place in the Shanghai diocese, and more than 200 clergy and faithful, including Bishop Ignatius Kung, were arrested.
During the Cultural Revolution (1966-1976), all perceived political enemies of Mao were persecuted, and believers of all religions, including official and underground Christians, were killed or suffered mental or physical mistreatment. After Mao’s death, official churches reopened, but still under the supervision of the Chinese Catholic Patriotic Association (CCPA).
The CCPA continues to appoint bishops and intervene in the church's policy without consulting the Vatican, and those who dissent are punished. In one notable case, Thaddeus Ma Daqin, the auxiliary bishop of Shanghai, was arrested and imprisoned after publicly resigning from his positions in the Patriotic Church in 2012.
Catholic priests who minister in China legally are required to sign a paper promising to support the CCP. They can only minister in recognized places of worship, and minors under the age of 18 are not allowed to enter.
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Catholic clergy forced to support the Communist Party
Since the Communist Party gained power in China in 1949, the Catholic Church has been subject to increasing restrictions and supervision by the state. The Catholic Church in China has effectively split into two communities: the "'Patriotic' Church, which operates with the approval of the Chinese authorities, and the "'Underground' Church, which professes loyalty to the Pope. The latter operates openly but lacks official approval and support.
The Communist Party has attempted to exert control over the Catholic Church in China in several ways. Firstly, Catholic clergy have been forced to support the Communist Party and its ideology. Catholic priests who minister in China are required to sign a paper in which they promise to support the Communist Party and are only allowed to minister in recognised places of worship that exclude minors. They are also expected to praise the glory of the Communist Party. In addition, the Communist Party has censored religious texts, forced members of the clergy to preach CCP ideology, and mandated the display of CCP slogans within churches. The Party has also ordered the removal of crosses from churches and replaced images of Christ and the Virgin Mary with images of Xi Jinping.
The Communist Party has also intervened in the Church's policies and appointments without consulting the Vatican. For example, the Party appoints bishops and has imprisoned outspoken dissenters, such as Thaddeus Ma Daqin, the auxiliary bishop of Shanghai, who was arrested after publicly resigning from his position in the Patriotic Church in 2012. The Party has also attempted to cut off future priests from the "richness of the Catholic Church and the universality of its teaching". This has been achieved by forbidding pilgrimages to China's national Marian shrine and instead organising celebrations of the Communist Party's anniversary, as well as forbidding Chinese Catholics from joining the Communist Party or participating in its activities.
The Vatican has reacted to these developments with concern, and there have been several attempts at compromise. In 1950, the Holy See stated that participation in certain CCP-related organisations would result in excommunication from the Church, leading to initiatives such as the "'Guangyuan Declaration of Catholic Self-Reformation', which gained support from Chinese Catholics. However, in 1951, Fr. Li Weiguang and a group of 783 priests, nuns, and lay Catholics signed a declaration opposing what they viewed as Vatican interference and Western imperialism. In response, the Chinese authorities arrested the apostolic nuncio Antonio Riberi, eventually deporting him to British Hong Kong, and broke off diplomatic relations with the Holy See.
In recent years, the situation has improved slightly, with the Vatican appointing five bishops under the framework established by its agreement with Chinese authorities since 2018. However, the Church still needs at least 40 bishops in China, and those who have been appointed are closely linked to the government.
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Catholic churches banned and destroyed
The Catholic Church in China has historically faced significant challenges under the rule of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). The CCP, which has long been hostile to religion, has sought to exert control over religious organizations and bring them into alignment with the state's ideology and objectives. This has resulted in the Catholic Church in China effectively splitting into two communities: the "Patriotic" Church, which operates with the approval of Chinese authorities, and the "Underground" Church, which remains loyal to the Pope and the Vatican.
The "Underground" Church, despite its name, mostly operates openly but lacks official approval and support from the state. Catholics in this community have faced various forms of persecution, including arrests, imprisonment, and even death for their refusal to comply with government campaigns and their devotion to their faith. During the Maoist era (1949-1976), communists soldiers under Chairman Mao Zedong's top general, Zhu De, seized a Trappist monastery near Beijing in 1947. This event set the tone for the treatment of Catholics and other Christians under communist rule.
The "Patriotic" Church, on the other hand, has had to make significant compromises to maintain its legal status. Priests in this community are required to sign papers pledging their support for the CCP and are only allowed to minister in recognized places of worship that exclude minors under the age of 18. They also face pressure from the government to censor parts of Catholic teaching and incorporate Chinese nationalism and praise for the Communist Party into their preaching.
The Chinese state has also intervened in the Church's policies and appointments without consulting the Vatican. For example, the auxiliary bishop of Shanghai, Thaddeus Ma Daqin, was arrested and imprisoned after publicly resigning from his positions in the Patriotic Church in 2012. This was seen as a challenge to the state's control over the Catholic Church in China. Additionally, the state has organized the Catholic Patriotic Church, which operates without connection to the Vatican, further dividing the Catholic community in China.
The Vatican has made attempts to negotiate with the Chinese government and reach agreements, such as the one established in 2018. However, these negotiations have been controversial, with some questioning whether they help or hinder the struggles of Chinese Catholics to practice their faith under a communist government. The situation on the ground remains challenging, with reports of destroyed convents, closed churches, and priests chased from their parishes.
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Catholics pressured to join the Patriotic Church
The Catholic Church in China is divided into two communities: the "Patriotic" Church, which operates with the approval of the Chinese government, and the "Underground" Church, which professes loyalty to the Pope. The Patriotic Church, also known as the Chinese Catholic Patriotic Association (CCPA) or the Chinese Patriotic Catholic Association (CPCA), operates without any connection to the Vatican and does not accept the primacy of the Roman Pontiff.
Since the signing of the Vatican-China deal in 2018, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) has interpreted the agreement as requiring all Underground Church priests to join the Patriotic Church, persecuting those who refuse to do so. Local authorities in the southeastern province of Fujian have carried out crackdowns against churches and meeting venues that refuse to join the CPCA. In one instance, a priest was holding Mass when neighborhood committee personnel, accompanied by police officers, entered the church and ordered him to shut down the venue. The following day, another Catholic meeting venue in the county was raided and shut down.
Catholic priests who refuse to join the Patriotic Church have been subjected to torture and threats. In one case, Fr. Huang was targeted by the authorities and tortured until he signed the application to join the CPCA. He was also pressured to persuade other priests to join, with the promise of a monetary reward for each successful case, but he refused. Msgr. Guo Xijin, the auxiliary bishop of the Diocese of Mindong, and Father Liu, a local priest, were also threatened by the police to force them to join the CPCA.
The Catholic Church has faced persecution in China since the Communist Revolution in 1949. Pope Pius XII forbade Chinese Catholics from joining the Communist Party or participating in its activities. Many Catholics were arrested, imprisoned, or even killed for refusing to comply with government campaigns to eliminate foreign influence and nationalize private schools. After the Communist forces captured the Nationalist capital, Nanjing, in 1949, China broke off diplomatic relations with the Holy See in 1951.
The Chinese government continues to appoint bishops and intervene in the church's policies, particularly on abortion and artificial contraception, without consulting the Vatican. The Communist Party remains officially atheist and intolerant of churches outside its control. While the CCP is hostile to religion in general, it does not seek to systematically destroy it as long as religious organizations are willing to submit to the state's direction. The Patriotic Church in China operates with the approval of the government, while the Underground Church continues to face persecution and pressure to join the state-sanctioned association.
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Frequently asked questions
There were an estimated four million Catholics in China in 1949, the year the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) took over.
While there is no exact figure, many Catholics have been persecuted and killed in Communist China. During the Cultural Revolution (1966-1976), believers of all religions, including official and underground Christians, were killed or suffered mental or physical mistreatment.
The Catholic Church in China developed into two communities: the "'Patriotic' Church, which operates with the approval of Chinese authorities, and the "'Underground' Church, which professes loyalty to the Pope. The Underground Church does not operate in secret, but it lacks official approval and support.
The Catholic Church in China continues to face restrictions and persecution. The Communist Party remains officially atheist and intolerant of churches outside its control. Catholic priests who minister in China legally are required to sign a paper pledging their support to the Communist Party.
The Vatican has had a complex relationship with Communist China. In 1951, the papal nuncio, Archbishop Riberi, was expelled from China. In recent years, the Vatican has entered into agreements with Chinese authorities, but religious freedom remains restricted.
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