Ethan Walker
Catholic missionaries have been present in China since the 7th century, when Christianity was first introduced to the country via the Silk Road. The history of Catholic missions in China has been characterised by periods of tolerance and acceptance, as well as persecution and expulsion, often depending on the attitudes of the ruling Chinese dynasties towards Western influence and religious practices. The current religious revival in China, marked by the domestic preservation of Catholic faith rather than foreign missionary activity, is referred to by some scholars as the country's fifth evangelisation.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| First Catholic missionary to China | Italian Franciscan Father John of Montecorvino |
| Year of arrival | 1294 |
| Number of converts by 1300 | 6,000 to 30,000 |
| Number of Catholics in China in 1368 | 30,000 |
| Number of Catholic Chinese members in 1700 | 200,000 |
| Catholic missionaries in China in the 19th century | Several thousand |
| Year when Catholic Church revisited its stance on Chinese customs | 1939 |
| Year when China began allowing the practice of religion | 1980s |
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What You'll Learn
Catholic missionaries in China: a historical timeline
The history of Catholic missionary work in China is long and complex, stretching back centuries. Here is a timeline highlighting some of the key moments:
7th Century
In 635 CE, a Persian missionary named Alopen brought Nestorian Christian teachings to China. Alopen was largely accepted by the ruling Tang Dynasty and was allowed to establish the first Christian church in the country. This period was commemorated with the creation of the Nestorian Stele, a 10-foot-high tablet that detailed the early history of Christianity in China.
13th Century
Missionary priests of the Latin Catholic Church from Europe, mainly Franciscans, entered China in the late 13th century. The Italian Franciscan priest John of Montecorvino arrived in Khanbaliq (modern-day Beijing) in 1294. He built a church in 1299 and another in 1305 opposite the imperial palace. John of Montecorvino studied the local language and began translating the New Testament and the Psalms. He is credited with converting between 6,000 and 30,000 people by the year 1300.
14th Century
In 1307, Pope Clement V sent seven Franciscan bishops to China to consecrate John of Montecorvino as Archbishop of Peking. Three survived the journey and succeeded each other as bishops at Zaiton, where John had established a presence. In 1338, representatives of the Great Khan invited the Pope to send priests for the local Christians, leading to the dispatch of Friar John of Marignolli and fifty to one hundred fellow Franciscans. This mission lasted until around 1368 when the Mongols were overthrown by the Ming dynasty, which forced all Catholics out of China.
16th Century
Early in the 16th century, Jesuits, Franciscans, Augustinians, and Dominicans attempted to establish a presence in China but were restricted to the port of Guangzhou. Later, in 1555, the Portuguese Dominican Gaspar da Cruz became the first missionary to arrive in China in modern times. His successors, however, were expelled by the mandarins.
17th Century
In the 17th century, the Rites Controversy emerged as a significant dispute. It centred around the Catholic Church's reluctance to recognize local Confucian customs of honouring deceased family members. The Vatican considered these practices to be religious exercises that conflicted with Catholic dogma. The controversy resulted in the expulsion of missionaries who could not adhere to the terms of Matteo Ricci's Chinese catechism, which tolerated the Chinese rites.
18th Century
In 1704, Pope Clement XI ended the dispute with a decisive ban, excommunicating any Christian who permitted Confucian rituals. By 1715, all Jesuit missions in China had collapsed, and the last Jesuits were expelled after 1721. In 1724, the Yongzheng Emperor expelled all missionaries who failed to support Ricci's position on accommodating Confucian rituals.
19th Century
In the 19th century, the pace of missionary activity increased significantly, particularly after the First Opium War in 1842. Christian missionaries played a major role in the westernization of China during this period. They established educational institutions, clinics, and hospitals, and worked to abolish practices such as foot binding and the unjust treatment of maidservants. However, they also faced opposition, with the emergence of anti-Christian sentiments and movements such as the Boxer Rebellion.
20th Century
The 20th century saw continued challenges for Catholic missionaries in China due to cultural, language, and political barriers. The Kuomintang's 1926 National Congress endorsed the growing anti-Christian movement, labelling missionaries as "tongues and claws of imperialism." Protests and riots targeting missionaries occurred, sometimes with the participation of Nationalist troops. After the Revolution of 1911 and the founding of the Republic of China, reform-minded priests worked to bridge the gap between Catholicism and Chinese ideologies.
21st Century
In the 21st century, the Catholic Church in China looks to the future with hope. There are currently an estimated 12 million Catholics in the country. The fifth evangelization is believed to have begun in the 1980s when China started allowing the practice of religion. This period is marked by Chinese Catholics preserving and transmitting their faith.
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Catholic missionaries and the Chinese language
The history of Catholic missionaries in China is long and complex, dating back to the 7th century. Over the centuries, Catholic missionaries have faced both successes and challenges in their efforts to spread their faith in the country. Language has been a significant factor influencing the success of Catholic missionary work in China.
One of the earliest known Catholic missionaries to China was the Italian priest Matteo Ricci, who arrived in the country in 1582. Ricci was unique in that he spoke and read the Chinese language fluently and had a deep understanding of Confucianism and Chinese culture. By respecting native customs and beliefs, Ricci was able to gain the favour of the Wanli Emperor and successfully convert many Chinese officials and people to Catholicism. Ricci's approach stood in contrast to that of many other Western missionaries, who often ignored the Chinese language and culture, focusing solely on spreading their religious teachings.
Following in Ricci's footsteps, other Jesuit missionaries such as Ruggieri and Giovanni de Monte Corvino also immersed themselves in the Chinese language and culture. They recognised the importance of integrating Catholic beliefs with existing Chinese ideologies and traditions. Monte Corvino, who arrived in China in 1294, studied the local language and began translating the New Testament and the Psalms. He is credited with converting between 6,000 and 30,000 people by the year 1300.
Language played a pivotal role in the Rites Controversy of the late 17th and early 18th centuries. This controversy centred around the Catholic Church's reluctance to recognise Confucian rituals for honouring deceased family members. The Chinese considered these rituals ancient and sacred, while the Vatican viewed them as conflicting with Catholic doctrine. Matteo Ricci had adopted a tolerant stance towards these rituals, and missionaries who failed to adhere to his position faced expulsion or even death under the "fundamental laws" of China.
In addition to the challenges posed by cultural and linguistic barriers, Catholic missionaries in China also encountered political obstacles. The perception of foreign missionaries as agents of imperialism and exploitation fuelled resentment and hostility towards them. The term used by Catholics for God, "Tianzhu" (meaning "Heavenly Lord"), shared a pronunciation with the word for "pig," leading to inflammatory hate literature and pamphlets.
Despite these challenges, Catholic missionaries persevered in their efforts to spread their faith in China, adapting their approaches to respect and engage with the local language and culture. Their legacy includes the establishment of educational institutions, such as Aurora University in Shanghai, and the translation of religious texts into the Chinese language.
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The impact of Catholic missionaries on Chinese society
Arrival of Catholic Missionaries in China
The first Catholic missionary to set foot in China was John of Montecorvino, who arrived in Khanbaliq (present-day Beijing) in 1294 during the Yuan dynasty. He established churches and began translating Christian scriptures into the local language, with estimates suggesting he converted between 6,000 to 30,000 people by 1300. The Catholic Church's permanent mission was later established in 1601 by the Jesuit Matteo Ricci, who took a subtle approach by intriguing the Ming Chinese authorities with Western technology and learning. Ricci also attempted to reconcile Christianity with Confucian texts, though he remained hostile towards Taoism and Buddhism.
Cultural Exchanges and Scientific Advances
Catholic missionaries played a crucial role in intercultural scientific and artistic exchanges, particularly among the upper classes and the imperial court. They introduced Western technology and knowledge, with missionaries like Matteo Ricci and Johann Adam Schall von Bell writing Chinese catechisms and making influential converts. The Jesuits also promoted artistic hybridization, such as Chinese Christian cloisonné productions. Additionally, missionaries were involved in translating Chinese classics into Latin, spreading knowledge of Chinese culture and history in Europe, and influencing the Enlightenment.
Social Tensions and Religious Disputes
The presence of Catholic missionaries in China also led to social tensions and religious disputes. The Rites Controversy, which revolved around the Catholic Church's reluctance to recognize Confucian rituals for honouring the dead, resulted in the expulsion of missionaries who refused to adhere to Matteo Ricci's accommodating position. The Chinese mandarins, who derived their power from knowledge of the Chinese classics, saw missionaries as a threat to their authority and resented Western ethical systems. This tension was further exacerbated by the introduction of the Franciscans and other orders, leading to a long-running controversy over Chinese customs and names for God.
Medical and Educational Contributions
Catholic missionaries made significant contributions to medicine and education in China. By the 1930s, approximately half of the hospitals in China and Hong Kong were overseen by Catholic and Protestant missionaries, who also established medical schools. They worked to abolish harmful practices such as foot binding and the mistreatment of maidservants, while also opposing the opium trade and treating addicts. Both Catholics and Protestants founded educational institutions, including some prominent Chinese universities, and distributed food to the poor.
Political Influence and Opposition
Several early leaders of the Republic of China, such as Sun Yat-sen, were influenced by Christian teachings and worked to abolish unfair practices. However, the Kuomintang's 1926 National Congress endorsed the growing anti-Christian movement, labelling missionaries as "tongues and claws of imperialism." Protests and riots against missionaries occurred, and the Boxer Rebellion resulted in the harassment and murder of missionaries and converts. After the Chinese Communist Party's victory in the Chinese Civil War, Catholic and Protestant missionaries were expelled from the country, and the Chinese Catholic Patriotic Association was established in Beijing, independent of the Holy See.
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Opposition to Catholic missionaries in China
Catholic missionaries have faced significant opposition in China since their arrival in the country. The earliest Catholic missionaries, who entered China in the late 13th century, were Franciscans. The Italian Franciscan priest John of Montecorvino, who arrived in China in 1294, built two churches and translated the New Testament and the Psalms into the local language. However, the presence of Catholic missionaries in China has not always been welcomed, and they have faced expulsion, persecution, and even violence.
One of the earliest instances of opposition to Catholic missionaries in China was the Rites Controversy of the late 17th and early 18th centuries. This controversy centred around the Catholic Church's reluctance to recognize local Confucian customs of honouring deceased family members. To the Chinese, these were ancient rituals, while to the Vatican, they were religious exercises that conflicted with Catholic dogma. As a result of this controversy, the Kangxi Emperor mandated that missionaries must declare their adherence to the rules of Matteo Ricci, which tolerated Chinese rites. In 1704, Pope Clement XI ended the dispute with a decisive ban, excommunicating any Christian who permitted Confucian rituals. This led to the expulsion of Christian missionaries who were unable or unwilling to abide by the terms of Ricci's Chinese catechism.
In the 19th century, Catholic missionaries were again expelled from China following the First Opium War. This period also saw the rise of anti-Christian sentiment, with local gentry publishing hate literature against foreign missionaries. The Boxer Rebellion of the late 19th and early 20th centuries was a violent reaction against Christianity in China, with missionaries and converts being harassed, murdered, and persecuted. During this time, Catholic missionaries were accused of imperialism and colonizing China piece by piece.
Even into the 20th century, Catholic missionaries continued to face opposition in China. After the Chinese Communist Party won the Chinese Civil War, Catholic missionaries were once again expelled from the country. The Communist government established the Chinese Catholic Patriotic Association (CCPA) in Beijing, which rejects the authority of the Holy See and appoints its own bishops. While a provisional agreement was reached between China and the Holy See in 2018, giving the Pope some power over the appointment of bishops, the history of Catholic missionaries in China has been characterized by conflict and opposition from local powers.
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Famous Catholic missionaries in China
The history of Catholic missions in China is a long and complex one, dating back to the 13th century. Here are some of the most famous Catholic missionaries who have played a significant role in the spread of Christianity in China:
John of Montecorvino
The Italian Franciscan priest John of Montecorvino was one of the earliest Catholic missionaries to enter China in 1294. He built churches in Khanbaliq (modern-day Beijing) and translated the New Testament and Psalms into the local language. It is estimated that he converted between 6,000 to 30,000 people by the year 1300.
Matteo Ricci
The Italian Jesuit Matteo Ricci is known for his missionary work in China during the late 16th and early 17th centuries. He established a base in Beijing and introduced Western science, mathematics, astronomy, and visual arts to the Chinese imperial court. Ricci is renowned for his spirit of accommodation, blending Western Christianity with Chinese culture. He also played a significant role in the transmission of knowledge and culture between China and the West.
Johann Adam Schall von Bell
A German Jesuit missionary and astronomer, Johann Adam Schall von Bell organised successful missionary work in China during the 17th century. He became a trusted counsellor to the Shunzhi Emperor of the Qing Dynasty and held an important post related to mathematical and astronomical studies. Schall's position enabled him to obtain permission for the Jesuits to build churches and preach throughout the country.
St. Francis Xavier
St. Francis Xavier, a Navarrese priest and missionary, was a co-founder of the Society of Jesus. He made the first attempt by the Jesuits to reach China in 1552 but died on Shangchuan Island off the coast of Guangdong without reaching the mainland.
Vincent Lebbe (Lei Mingyuan)
Arriving in Beijing in 1901, Father Vincent Lebbe was a strong advocate for the empowerment of Chinese clergy. He emphasised the importance of learning the Chinese language and advocated for the elevation of Chinese priests within the clerical hierarchy. Lebbe established two religious societies in northern China and actively supported Chinese efforts against the Japanese invasion in the 1930s.
These individuals, among many others, have left a lasting impact on the religious and cultural landscape of China, contributing to the establishment and growth of Christianity in the country.
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Frequently asked questions
The number of Catholic missionaries in China has varied over time. In the 1300s, there were several Catholic missionaries in China, with some estimates suggesting there were 6,000 to 30,000 converts by 1300. By 1700, the Catholic Church had about 200,000 Chinese members. However, due to the Chinese Rites Controversy, the development of the Church was stunted, and many missionaries were expelled or forced to leave. In the 1800s, the pace of missionary activity increased, and several thousand missionaries were working in China by the end of the century. Today, the number of Catholic missionaries in China is likely much smaller, as the country's religious revival in the 1980s was marked by Chinese Catholics keeping and transmitting the faith within the country.
The first Catholic missionary to China in modern times was the Portuguese Dominican Gaspar da Cruz, who arrived in 1555. However, some sources consider the Italian Franciscan Father John of Montecorvino, who arrived in 1294, as the first Catholic missionary to China.
Catholic missionaries in China faced several challenges due to cultural, language, and political barriers. They were often dependent on the tolerance of the ruling Chinese emperor or dynasty, which could change rapidly. For example, the Jesuits were initially favored by the Wanli Emperor of the Ming Dynasty but later fell out of favor due to the Rites Controversy. Missionaries also faced opposition from the local population, with some considering them agents of imperialism.
Catholic missionaries had a significant impact on China, particularly in the areas of education, healthcare, and social reform. They founded educational institutions, established clinics and hospitals, and provided training for nurses. They also worked to abolish harmful practices such as foot binding and the unjust treatment of maidservants. Additionally, they opposed the opium trade and provided treatment for those addicted. Several early leaders of the Republic of China, such as Sun Yat-sen, were influenced by their teachings.
Throughout history, there have been several notable Catholic missionaries to China. Some of the most famous include Matteo Ricci, a Jesuit priest who was invited to serve as an advisor to the Wanli Emperor in 1601; Johann Adam Schall von Bell, a German Jesuit missionary and astronomer; and Pierre-Marie-Alphonse Favier, who served in China from 1862 to 1905.
