Sarah Mitchell
The Catholic Inquisition, also known as the Medieval Inquisition, was a series of inquisitions or Catholic Church bodies charged with suppressing heresy. It was established in response to movements considered apostate or heretical to Roman Catholicism, including the Cathars and the Waldensians. The Inquisition was first authorised by Pope Lucius III in 1184, who sent bishops to southern France to track down heretics. The Inquisition continued to evolve and take different forms over the centuries, investigating and stamping out various forms of heresy, including witchcraft. The Spanish Inquisition, authorised by Pope Sixtus IV in 1478, is a notable example of the Inquisition's expansion. It targeted converts from Judaism (conversos) and was responsible for the persecution and execution of thousands. The last person to be executed by the Inquisition was Cayetano Ripoll, a Spanish schoolmaster hanged for heresy in 1826. The Inquisition was officially defunct by 1834, however, the Supreme Sacred Congregation of the Roman and Universal Inquisition, now known as the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, still exists today.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Start of the Medieval Inquisition | Around 1184 |
| End of the Medieval Inquisition | 1230s |
| Start of the Spanish Inquisition | 1478 |
| First Spanish Inquisition tribunal | 1480 |
| First Inquisitor-General of the Spanish Inquisition | 1483 |
| End of the Spanish Inquisition | 1834 |
| First auto-da-fé in Portugal | 1540 |
| Trial of Galileo Galilei by Roman Inquisition | 1633 |
| Estimated number of executions | 2000 |
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What You'll Learn
The Inquisition's beginnings
The Inquisition has its origins in the early organised persecution of non-Catholic Christian religions in Europe. In the 12th century, two movements emerged that were considered heretical to the Roman Catholic Church: Catharism and Waldensians. The Cathars were first noted in the 1140s in Southern France, and the Waldensians, who rejected the sacramental authority of the Church, around 1170 in Northern Italy.
In 1184, Pope Lucius III sent bishops to Southern France to track down Catharists, marking the beginning of the Medieval Inquisition. This effort continued into the 14th century, with the Church also pursuing the Waldensians in Germany and Northern Italy. The Episcopal Inquisition, which lasted from 1184 to the 1230s, was followed by the Papal Inquisition in the 1230s.
In 1231, Pope Gregory IX charged the Dominican and Franciscan Orders with the task of hunting down heretics. Pope Gregory's original intention for the Inquisition was to bring heretics back into the Catholic fold. Suspects who persisted in their heresy would be handed over to civil authorities, as public heresy was a crime under both civil and Church law. Over the centuries, the Inquisition took different forms, investigating and suppressing various forms of heresy, including witchcraft.
In 1307, Inquisitors were involved in the mass arrest and torture of 15,000 Knights Templar in France, resulting in dozens of executions. In the 15th century, the Spanish Inquisition was established, targeting converts from Judaism (conversos) who were suspected of remaining loyal to their ancestral religion. The Portuguese Inquisition, which began in the 16th century, also focused on Jews and Jewish converts to Christianity. The Inquisition expanded its operations to Portugal's colonial possessions, including Brazil, where it continued as a religious court.
The Inquisition was active for centuries, with the Spanish Inquisition officially ending in 1834. The Supreme Sacred Congregation of the Roman and Universal Inquisition, now known as the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, still exists today.
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The Inquisition's end
The Inquisition, a series of Catholic Church bodies charged with suppressing heresy, began in 1184 with the Episcopal Inquisition and continued into the 19th century. The last person to be executed by the Inquisition was Cayetano Ripoll, a Spanish schoolmaster hanged for heresy in 1826. Napoleon's conquest of Spain in 1808 led to the abolishment of the Inquisition there. However, after Napoleon's defeat in 1814, Ferdinand VII attempted to reinstate it. The Inquisition was ultimately prevented from continuing by the French government, and it was defunct by 1834.
The Inquisition has a long and complex history, with various waves and different manifestations over the centuries. The Medieval Inquisition, which began in 1184, targeted movements considered apostate or heretical to Roman Catholicism, such as Catharism and the Waldensians in Southern France and Northern Italy. The Episcopal Inquisition lasted from 1184 until the 1230s, when it was replaced by the Papal Inquisition.
In 1231, Pope Gregory IX charged the Dominican and Franciscan Orders with tracking down heretics, and the Inquisition took on new forms over time. During the late 15th century, the Spanish Inquisition was established under the influence of Tomas de Torquemada, targeting Jews and conversos (Jews who had converted to Christianity). The Portuguese Inquisition, which began in the early 16th century, also focused on Jews and conversos, particularly those who had fled Spain.
The Inquisition's influence extended beyond Europe, with active involvement in colonial Brazil and other Portuguese possessions. The 16th century saw a shift in focus to Protestantism, and the Inquisition continued to adapt and persist. The exact number of victims of the Inquisition is unknown, but it is estimated that there were thousands of executions, including many witches.
The end of the Inquisition was a gradual process, with different manifestations ending at various times. The Spanish Inquisition officially ended in 1834, and the Supreme Sacred Congregation of the Roman and Universal Inquisition changed its name to the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith. While the exact date of the Inquisition's complete end is unclear, it is certain that it concluded sometime in the 19th century, bringing to a close a lengthy era of religious persecution and inquiry.
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The Inquisition's victims
The Inquisition, which began in 1184, was a series of Catholic Church bodies charged with suppressing heresy. It was established in response to movements considered apostate or heretical to Roman Catholicism, including Catharism and the Waldensians in Southern France and Northern Italy. The Inquisition was also active in colonial territories, such as Brazil, Cape Verde, and Goa.
Over the centuries, the Inquisition took different forms and targeted various groups, resulting in numerous victims. Here is an overview of the Inquisition's victims:
- Cathars and Waldensians: The Cathars, first noted in the 1140s in Southern France, and the Waldensians, emerging around 1170 in Northern Italy, were among the first groups targeted by the Inquisition. They were considered heretical by the Catholic Church due to their beliefs and practices that deviated from Catholic teachings.
- Jews: Jews were a significant target of the Inquisition, especially during the Spanish Inquisition. In 1481, under the influence of Tomas de Torquemada, the monarchs of Spain created the Tribunal of Castile to investigate heresy among Jews who had converted to Christianity (Conversos). Many Conversos were accused of various crimes, including poisoning water and abducting Christian children. They were forced into ghettos, and hundreds were burned at the stake. The Portuguese Inquisition also focused on the Sephardi Jews, who had fled Spain or been forcibly converted.
- Muslims: While Muslims were not the primary target of the Inquisition, they were also affected, particularly in territories under Inquisition influence. In Castile, for example, legislation regarding Muslims varied, and they faced increased intolerance during periods of instability and dynastic wars in the 14th century.
- Witches: The Inquisition played a significant role in the persecution of alleged witches, especially during the Episcopal Inquisition. Inquisitors often considered witchcraft an exceptional crime, leading to executions even for those who pleaded guilty. The accusation of witchcraft was also used in trials to complicate proceedings and add further charges.
- Other Religious Dissenters: The Inquisition targeted a range of religious groups and individuals whose beliefs diverged from Catholic orthodoxy. This included individuals like Joan of Arc, burned at the stake in 1431, and the Italian scientist Galileo Galilei, imprisoned in 1633 for supporting the Copernican theory.
- Financial Impact: The Inquisition also had financial repercussions for its victims. During the Spanish Inquisition in the 16th century, enormous sums of money were confiscated from those accused of heresy. Those declared "reconciled" faced restrictions in occupying public or church posts and were excluded from certain professions.
It is important to note that estimates of the number of victims killed or tortured during the Inquisition vary, and some historians argue that the scale of violence may have been exaggerated. However, the Inquisition undoubtedly resulted in executions, torture, and the suppression of religious and intellectual freedom for those who fell under its scrutiny.
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The Inquisition's methods
The Inquisition was established in response to movements considered apostate or heretical to Roman Catholicism, particularly the Cathars and Waldensians in Southern France and Northern Italy. The Inquisition was also active in colonial Brazil, targeting the religious mystic Rosa Egipcíaca, who was arrested, interrogated, and imprisoned.
The methods employed by the Inquisition were designed to suppress heresy and included interrogation, torture, and execution. Here is a detailed overview of the Inquisition's methods:
- Surveillance and Record-Keeping: The Inquisition revolutionized record-keeping and surveillance techniques, keeping meticulous records of their activities. They would arrive in a town and announce their presence, giving citizens the opportunity to admit to heresy.
- Interrogation Techniques: Inquisitors used various psychological tactics during interrogations. They employed intimidation strategies, such as having a large stack of documents in front of them to imply they had extensive information. They also utilized tricks like shaking their heads in disbelief at the accused's answers.
- Torture: In 1252, Pope Innocent IV authorized the limited use of torture by inquisitors through the bull Ad extirpanda. Torture methods included:
- Strappado: The victim's arms were tied behind their back, and they were lifted to the ceiling and then dropped violently, often resulting in arm dislocation.
- Rack or Potro: The prisoner was tied to a frame, and pressure was applied, stopping just before piercing the skin or drawing blood.
- Water Cure or Waterboarding: A cloth was inserted through the prisoner's mouth, and large amounts of water were poured in, creating a sensation of drowning and causing the stomach to swell.
- Stretching: The victim was stretched on a table, often resulting in long-term physical damage.
- Denunciation: Denouncing others became a superior religious duty, encouraging people to spy and suspect their neighbours, family, and strangers.
- Punishments: The punishments for those found guilty of heresy varied. They included penances such as private devotions, forced wearing of distinctive clothing, or heavy punishments like whipping and pilgrimage. Defendants' properties were also confiscated to cover legal and prison costs.
- Execution: If heretics persisted in their beliefs, they were handed over to civil authorities, as public heresy was a crime under civil and Church law. Burning at the stake was a common method of execution, and thousands of people, including Joan of Arc, were executed during the Inquisition.
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The Inquisition's legacy
Another important aspect of the Inquisition's legacy is its role in shaping religious and cultural relations, particularly between Catholics and non-Catholics. The Inquisition was often used as a tool to target and persecute Jews, Muslims, and conversos (Jews who converted to Christianity). This persecution worsened the living conditions of non-Catholics and contributed to a climate of suspicion and intolerance. In some cases, entire communities were forced into exile or segregation, as seen with the Jews in Castile who were forced into ghettos in 1481.
The Inquisition also had a significant impact on the development of European kingdoms and their relations with the Catholic Church. For example, Castile and Aragon resisted Papal attempts to extend its authority into their kingdoms, particularly regarding the Church's request for control over Reconquest land. This resistance added to the tensions between these kingdoms and Rome, illustrating the complex dynamics between secular and ecclesiastical powers during this period.
The Inquisition's methods and ideologies also influenced the development of legal and judicial systems in various countries. For example, in Portugal, several "Regimentos" (manuals) were written for the use of inquisitors, with the first dating back to 1552. These manuals detailed the procedures, laws, and guidelines that inquisitors were expected to follow. The Portuguese Inquisition later expanded its scope to include its colonial possessions, such as Brazil, where it continued to persecute those who deviated from orthodox Catholicism.
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Frequently asked questions
The Catholic Inquisition lasted from 1184, when Pope Lucius III sent bishops to southern France to track down heretics, to 1834, when it was dismantled after the defeat of Ferdinand VII.
The Spanish Inquisition began in 1480 and ended in 1834.
The Portuguese Inquisition began in 1540 and ended in the 1770s.
