Michael Brooks
The relationship between the Catholic Church and revolution is complex and multifaceted. While the Catholic Church has been implicated in countering revolutionary forces throughout history, often allying with monarchs and opposing revolutionary forces, the religion has also been a driving force for revolutionary change in some instances. The French Revolution, for example, saw a dechristianisation movement that targeted Catholicism, leading to the persecution of priests and the removal of public signs of Christianity. This was partly due to the association of Catholicism with the ancien régime and its values. On the other hand, the Scientific Revolution challenged the Catholic Church's authority and introduced new ways of thinking, fostering religious tolerance and questioning the role of the Church. Additionally, Catholic figures like Pope John Paul II have been credited with inspiring revolutions in countries like Haiti, Poland, and the Philippines. These conflicting dynamics demonstrate the intricate interplay between Catholicism and revolutionary movements, which can vary depending on historical context and geographical location.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Religion during revolution | The French Revolution saw the suppression of Catholicism and the rise of new religions like the Cult of the Supreme Being and Theophilanthropy. |
| The Scientific Revolution challenged the Catholic Church, leading to increased religious tolerance and a more secular society. | |
| The Mexican War of Independence and revolutions in Haiti, Poland, the Philippines, Chile, and Paraguay were all influenced by Catholic priests and the Church. | |
| The Second Spanish Revolution of 1820 led to the establishment of Catholicism as Mexico's official religion. | |
| Catholic doctrine on revolution | Catholic doctrine suggests obeying government authority and following rules, even if they seem unfair. |
| Killing a monarch is seen as wrong, as a bad monarch may be sent by God to punish people for their wickedness. | |
| Catholic leaders have historically accepted the rights of groups to worship but not the rights of individuals to proselytize. |
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What You'll Learn
The French Revolution and the Catholic Church
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, had a profound impact on the Catholic Church in France and across the world. At the time, Catholicism was the official religion of the French state, with the country's population of 28 million almost entirely Catholic. The French Catholic Church, known as the Gallican Church, recognised the authority of the Pope but also had a distinct national identity with considerable autonomy.
The French Revolution saw a shift in this dynamic, with the National Constituent Assembly seizing Church properties and land, selling them to fund the assignat revolutionary currency, and passing the Civil Constitution of the Clergy, which subordinated the Church to the state. This sparked a conflict between temporal power and spiritual authority, with the Pope and other high-ranking clergy rejecting the Civil Constitution. The Revolution also witnessed a wave of anti-clericalism, with attacks on Church corruption and the wealth of the higher clergy. This led to the abolition of tithes, the confiscation of Church property, and the suppression of religious worship.
The revolutionary government also attempted to establish new forms of moral religion, such as the Cult of Reason and the Cult of the Supreme Being, which was mandated in April 1794. The Festival of the Supreme Being was celebrated throughout France on June 8, 1794, with aggressive splendour. The Convention, however, desired to maintain freedom of worship, provided it did not cause disturbances. This period also saw the emergence of a movement referred to as 'dechristianisation', which aimed to excise religion from French society. Constitutional priests were advised to abandon the priesthood and were encouraged or forced to marry.
The French Revolution's impact on the Catholic Church extended beyond France, particularly in the early United States, where Catholics experienced a liberating event that contrasted with the French Revolution's radicalism. The American Revolution burst the shackles of colonial-era repression, fostering religious liberty and compatibility with republican politics. The French Revolution also sparked a wave of anticlerical violence and political radicalism, leading to an influx of Catholic refugees into the United States, who contributed to the development of Catholic institutions and communities.
Napoleon played a significant role in shaping the relationship between the Catholic Church and the French state following the Revolution. While he had little personal regard for religion, he recognised its utility for consolidating his rule. Napoleon formalised the place of the Church in France through the Concordat signed with Rome in 1801, which recognised Catholicism as the religion of the vast majority of French citizens while denying the Church a privileged position within the state. Napoleon's actions also extended to conquered territories, where he introduced the Concordat and closed down monasteries, seizing Church property.
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Napoleon and the Catholic Church
The French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars demonstrated the dangers of revolution to the Catholic Church and the need to mobilise religious influence on behalf of vulnerable monarchies. Napoleon's relationship with the Catholic Church was complex and remained on difficult terms throughout his rule. Although he moderated the radical secularism of the French Revolution, he opposed the church as a political power at various turns.
Napoleon recognised that if relations were mended with the Church, it could be used to promote and consolidate his rule throughout France. He set about formalising its place in France, ensuring that loyal membership of the Church and the state were no longer mutually exclusive. On 16 July 1801, France signed the Concordat with Rome, reaffirming Catholicism as the majority church of France and restoring some of its civil status. While the Concordat restored some ties to the papacy, it largely favoured the interests of the French state.
Napoleon increasingly sought to associate his personal rule with the Church. He insisted on the pope's attendance at his coronation ceremony in Paris in 1804, introduced a feast day for the rediscovered 'Saint Napoleon', and used the Imperial Catechism to suggest that his reign was authorised by God. However, his disdain for Rome was also evident. He closed down monasteries, seized Church property, and introduced the Concordat in conquered territories, bringing the Catholic Church in other countries under his rule.
Napoleon's relationship with Pope Pius VII was particularly fraught. He had the pope held prisoner for almost five years, resulting in his excommunication. He also demanded that the pope declare war on his enemies and submit to him even in spiritual matters, such as the appointment of bishops. By 1807, the relationship was in tatters.
During his exile on Saint Helena, Napoleon reconciled with the Catholic Church and asked for a chaplain, saying, "it would rest my soul to hear Mass".
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The Scientific Revolution and religious tolerance
The Scientific Revolution, which began in Western Europe in the 16th century, had a profound impact on the knowledge of the natural world and on the ancient disciplines and customs that guided society. It was based on the idea that the universe could be understood through reason and the scientific method, which was created as a uniform way to seek answers. This new way of thinking challenged the Catholic Church and its authority, introducing people to new ways of thinking and understanding the world. The revolution can be thought of in two parts: the Scientific Renaissance, which involved the rediscovery of mathematics, philosophy, astronomy, and physics; and the revolution itself, where people began to question the ideas of the Church.
The Scientific Revolution contributed to the Enlightenment, a movement that caused people to question the roles of the Church and religion in their lives. The central theme of this period was that human society "could be changed and improved by human action guided by reason", as stated by Marquis de Condorcet. Many prominent figures of the Scientific Revolution were Deists, who believed that God created the universe but then stepped back and no longer influenced the world.
The Scientific Revolution had a polarizing effect, creating a divide between the world of science and the role of the Church in people's lives. The answers of religion and ancient writings were now being questioned by everyday members of society, and the Church's influence began to recede. As the Catholic Church lost power, religious tolerance gradually increased, and people became less religious overall.
The Scientific Revolution began with Nicholas Copernicus and his heliocentric theory, which stated that the planets revolve around the sun, not the Earth. This contradicted the Church's claim that the Earth was the center of the universe because God had placed it there. Other important figures of the Scientific Revolution include Galileo Galilei, who also supported heliocentrism, and Isaac Newton, who showed that the laws of physics, not divine forces, govern motion on Earth and in space.
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Catholic doctrine and revolts
The Catholic Church has had a complex relationship with revolutions and revolts, with its involvement varying depending on the specific historical context and the nature of the uprising. While the Church has often been associated with stability and the maintenance of the status quo, there have also been instances where it has played a role in fomenting or supporting revolutionary change.
At a doctrinal level, the Catholic Church teaches obedience to the authority of governments and the following of established rules and laws, even if they may seem unfair. This is based on the belief that even unjust laws can be tolerated if disobeying them would result in a greater evil or sin. However, this position is not absolute, and the Church has also emphasised the importance of removing bad rulers without resorting to bloodshed. The idea of regicide, or killing a monarch, is specifically discouraged in Catholic doctrine, as St. Thomas Aquinas argued that a bad ruler might be sent by God to punish people for their wickedness.
Historically, the French Revolution is a notable example of the Catholic Church's complex relationship with revolutions. On the one hand, the Revolution was driven in part by a desire to reduce the influence of Catholicism, which was seen as a remnant of the ancien régime. This led to a "dechristianisation" movement that sought to remove all signs of Christianity from public life, including banning worship and forcing priests to abandon their priesthood or face arrest and deportation. On the other hand, Napoleon, who came to power in the aftermath of the Revolution, recognised the utility of mending relations with the Church as a way to consolidate his rule. He negotiated the Concordat with Rome, which recognised Catholicism as the religion of the majority of French citizens without granting the Church a privileged position within the state.
In other contexts, the Catholic Church has had a more direct role in fomenting or supporting revolutionary change. For example, the War of Independence for Mexico was inspired by a Catholic priest who opposed Spanish rule. Similarly, Pope John Paul II has been credited with sparking revolutions in several countries, including Haiti, Poland, and the Philippines. In the 19th century, Reform Catholicism was seen as a driving force behind democratic revolutions in Europe and the Americas. For instance, the second Spanish revolution of 1820 led to the establishment of a republic in Mexico, with Catholicism declared as the "religion of the Mexican nation."
However, it is important to distinguish between the actions of individuals or groups within the Church and the official position of the Church hierarchy. While individual Catholics or clergy members may initiate or support revolts, these actions do not necessarily reflect the official stance of the Catholic Church, which has often emphasised stability and obedience to authority.
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The Mexican War of Independence
The role of the Catholic Church in the Mexican War of Independence was significant. The war was sparked by a series of indigenous uprisings against colonial rule, led by figures such as Father Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, who questioned fundamental tenets of Catholicism. Despite his training for the priesthood, Hidalgo rejected ideas such as the Virgin birth, clerical celibacy, and hell. The war's early revolts were often planned by Mexican-born Spaniards or criollos, who were ranked below native Europeans in the caste system. However, as the conflict progressed, it united various factions, including insurgents with African ancestry, under leaders like José María Morelos y Pavón, Mariano Matamoros, and Vicente Guerrero.
The Congress of Chilpancingo, composed of insurgents, issued the Solemn Act of the Declaration of Independence, a crucial document in Mexican history. This declaration not only proclaimed Mexico's independence but also enshrined Roman Catholicism as the sole religion of the nation. It asserted the country's powers as a sovereign state, including the authority to appoint ambassadors and establish direct relations with the Papacy, independent of the Spanish monarch. The insurgents' leader, Agustín de Iturbide, played a pivotal role in shaping the Plan of Iguala, which outlined three key principles for Mexican independence: the establishment of an independent monarchy under a European prince, the granting of equal rights to creoles and peninsulares (those born in Spain), and the preservation of the Roman Catholic Church's privileges and position as the official religion.
The Treaty of Córdoba, signed in 1821, formally established Mexico as an independent constitutional monarchy under Iturbide. However, just 18 months later, republican insurgents overthrew the emperor and founded the first Mexican Republic. The Mexican War of Independence resulted in the creation of a new nation with Catholicism as its official religion, reflecting the complex interplay between religion and political upheaval during this transformative period in Mexico's history.
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Frequently asked questions
The French Revolution saw a movement referred to as 'dechristianisation', which aimed to remove religion from French society. Catholicism was deemed suspicious and incompatible with the values of the Republic. The Catholic Church was persecuted, with priests facing arrest and deportation, and public worship being forbidden.
The Scientific Revolution challenged the Catholic Church and introduced new ways of thinking based on reason and the scientific method. It led to people questioning the role of the Church in their lives and resulted in a loss of power and influence for the Church, as well as a decline in overall religious observance.
Catholic doctrine generally promotes obedience to authority and following the laws of the government, even if they seem unfair. However, there is also a belief that one should not follow unjust laws that may lead to sin or greater evil. Revolting against a monarch specifically is considered a sin, as a bad monarch may be sent by God to punish people for their wickedness.
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