Grace Thompson
James II, King of England, Scotland, and Ireland from 1685 to 1688, was the last Catholic monarch of England. James's conversion to Catholicism in the 1660s caused tension among MPs and the public, who were concerned about a return to papal rule and how a Catholic could be the Supreme Governor of the Anglican Church. James's attempts to promote Catholicism and give civic equality to Roman Catholic and Protestant dissenters led to conflict with Parliament, and he was deposed in the Glorious Revolution of 1688, led by his Protestant daughter Mary and her husband William III of Orange.
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What You'll Learn
James II's conversion to Catholicism
James's exposure to Catholicism began during his time in France, where he was drawn to the beliefs and ceremonies of the Roman Catholic Church. He took Catholic Eucharist in 1668 or 1669, but his conversion was kept secret for several years as he continued to attend Anglican services until 1676. James's deep devotion to Catholicism was noted, and he once remarked, "If occasion were, I hope God would give me his grace to suffer death for the true Catholic religion as well as banishment."
James's conversion caused tension among MPs and the public, who were concerned about a return to papal rule and how a Catholic could be the Supreme Governor of the Anglican Church. As a result, James faced opposition and political crises throughout his reign. His attempts to impose Catholic measures by absolutist decrees as a matter of his divine right met with resistance, and his efforts to centralize the state and increase taxation caused further discontent.
In terms of specific actions, James sought to promote Catholicism by exempting Catholics from the restrictions of the Test Act and issuing a Declaration of Indulgence in 1687, suspending the penal laws against Nonconformists. He also appointed Catholic judges and placed Catholics in command of Scotland, Ireland, and the Channel Fleet. Additionally, James's marriage to the Italian princess Mary of Modena, in a Roman Catholic ceremony, further fuelled distrust among the British people, who regarded her as an agent of the Papacy.
The birth of James's son, James Francis Edward Stuart, in 1688, and his subsequent Catholic baptism, intensified the crisis. This changed the succession to the throne, which would have otherwise passed to his two adult Protestant daughters, Mary and Anne. The prospect of a Catholic dynasty, combined with James's policies of religious tolerance and centralization, ultimately led to his overthrow and exile, ending his reign as king.
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Catholicisation of England
James II was the King of England, Scotland and Ireland from 1685 to 1688. He was the last Catholic monarch of England, Scotland and Ireland. James's conversion to Catholicism in 1668 or 1669 was kept secret for almost a decade, with James continuing to attend Anglican services until 1676. However, his conversion caused tension among MPs and the public, who were concerned about a return to papal rule and how a Catholic could be the Supreme Governor of the Anglican Church.
James's attempts to promote the Catholic cause by appointing Catholics to important positions in his court, army and academia, as well as his attempts to exempt Catholics from the restrictions of the Test Act, were seen as a threat to the Church of England and the Anglican establishment. His attempts to impose his will by absolutist decrees as a matter of his divine right met with opposition.
In 1687, James issued a Declaration of Indulgence, which suspended the penal laws against religious dissidents and offered religious liberty to Protestant Nonconformists. However, this was seen by many as a ploy to encourage conversions to Catholicism and a dangerous abuse of the royal prerogative.
James's attempts to Catholicise England were not just a matter of religious conviction, but also part of a wider effort to create a modern, centralised and bureaucratic state apparatus, similar to that of the French Sun King, Louis XIV. James's imposition of taxes to fund this state apparatus was deeply unpopular and helped turn public opinion against him.
Ultimately, it was the birth of James's son in June 1688 that changed the succession to the throne, which up until that point would have passed to his two adult Protestant daughters, Mary and Anne. This, along with the prosecution of the Seven Bishops, turned dissent into a crisis and led to anti-Catholic riots in England and Scotland. The result was the Glorious Revolution of 1688, in which James was deposed and replaced by his Protestant daughter Mary and her husband, William III of Orange.
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Fear of Catholic absolutism
James II's conversion to Catholicism in 1668 or 1669 caused widespread fear of Catholic absolutism in England. As a result, James's relations with Parliament, the Church of England, and the political nation soured soon after he took the throne in 1685.
James's conversion intensified old fears about Catholic absolutism and raised newer ones about French influence. In 1678, these fears climaxed with the hysteria over the "Popish Plot", an alleged Jesuit conspiracy to assassinate Charles II and ensure his Catholic brother's succession. This period, known as the Exclusion Crisis (1678-1683), saw successive Parliaments introduce bills to prevent James from becoming king.
James's attempts to promote the Catholic cause further alienated his subjects. He dismissed judges and Lord Lieutenants who refused to support the withdrawal of laws penalising religious dissidents, appointed Catholics to important academic and senior military and political positions, and issued a Declaration of Indulgence in 1687, suspending the penal laws against all Nonconformists. Many saw this as a ploy to encourage conversions to Catholicism and a dangerous abuse of the prerogative.
The birth of James's son in June 1688 changed the succession to the throne, which up until that point would have passed to his two adult Protestant daughters, Mary and Anne. This raised the prospect of a Catholic dynasty, leading to anti-Catholic riots in England and Scotland. The public now feared that only James's removal could prevent another civil war.
James was deposed in the Glorious Revolution of 1688, led by his Protestant daughter Mary and her husband, William III of Orange. The Glorious Revolution permanently established Parliament as the ruling power in England.
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James' attempts to promote Catholicism
James II was a Catholic convert, and his ascension to the throne caused tension among MPs and the public, who were concerned about a return to papal rule and how a Catholic could be the Supreme Governor of the Anglican Church. His reign was marked by struggles over religious tolerance and rebellions, and he was ultimately undone by a nationwide hostile reaction to his bureaucratic state and taxation apparatus.
James II attempted to promote Catholicism in several ways. Firstly, he issued the Declaration of Indulgence, also known as the Declaration for Liberty of Conscience, in 1687. This used his dispensing power to negate the effect of laws punishing Roman Catholics and Protestant Dissenters. Many Protestant Nonconformists accepted its offer of religious liberty, but others saw it as a ploy to encourage conversions to Catholicism and an abuse of power.
Secondly, James attempted to reduce the Anglican monopoly on education. He offended Anglicans by allowing Roman Catholics to hold important positions in Christ Church and University College, two of Oxford's largest colleges. He also tried to force the Fellows of Magdalen College to elect a man of ill repute, believed to be a Roman Catholic, as their President, which was seen as a violation of the Fellows' right to choose.
Thirdly, James instituted a purge of those in offices under the Crown who opposed his plans, appointing new lord-lieutenants of counties and remodelling the corporations governing towns. He ordered the lord-lieutenants to ask Justices of the Peace three questions:
- Would they consent to the repeal of the Test Act and the Penal Laws?
- Would they assist candidates who would do so?
- Would they accept the Declaration of Indulgence?
Hundreds who gave negative answers to these questions were dismissed. The new town officials included Quakers, Baptists, Congregationalists, Presbyterians, and Roman Catholics, as well as Anglicans.
Finally, James attempted to pack Parliament with his supporters so that it would repeal the Test Act and the Penal Laws. He adjourned Parliament in November 1685 and prorogued it for a year and a half until he dissolved it in July 1687, fearing that he was using his prerogative to circumvent statute and promote Catholicism.
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The Glorious Revolution
James II was a Catholic, and his attempts to impose his beliefs on the country, as well as his attempts to exempt Catholics from the restrictions of the Test Act, caused widespread discontent, particularly among non-Catholics. His suspension of the legal rights of Dissenters and the birth of his son and heir, James Francis Edward Stuart, in June 1688, raised the prospect of a Catholic dynasty, excluding his Protestant daughter Mary, and helped bring this discontent to a head.
In response, several prominent Englishmen, known as the 'Immortal Seven', invited William of Orange to invade England. William's military forces were seen as a stabilizing influence, and his marriage to Mary, James II's Protestant daughter, made him an attractive alternative to James. On 5 November 1688, William landed at Torbay in Devon, England, with a large army. James II, who had been expecting an invasion, was nevertheless caught off guard, and as William marched on London, many of James II's supporters defected to William's side. James II attempted to regain the throne but was ultimately unsuccessful. He fled to France, where he was received by his cousin, Louis XIV, and his exile marked the end of his reign.
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Frequently asked questions
Catholics were generally supportive of James II, as he attempted to give civic equality to Roman Catholic and Protestant dissenters. He also promoted the Catholic cause by appointing Catholics to important academic, military, and political positions.
James II's attempts to promote Catholicism created tension with the English Parliament, which was predominantly Tory and Anglican. They saw his actions as an attack on the Church of England and its bishops. This ultimately led to his deposition in the Glorious Revolution of 1688.
James II's conversion to Catholicism in 1668 or 1669 altered the course of his political life. It intensified fears about Catholic absolutism and French influence, leading to conflicts with Parliament, the Church of England, and the public. His attempts to impose Catholic measures through absolutist decrees met with opposition, and he was eventually deposed in 1688.
