Grace Thompson
China has a long history of repressing religious expression, and its Christians are no exception. Since the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) took control in 1949, the country has expelled Christian missionaries and sought to control the practice of Christianity. While the Catholic Church has been present in China since the early medieval period, the modern Chinese language divides Christians into two groups: adherents of Catholicism, Tiānzhǔjiào, and adherents of Protestantism, Jīdūjiào or Jīdū Xīnjiào. With an estimated 12 million Catholics in China, the Vatican has attempted to negotiate a deal with Beijing to unify the flock and protect them from persecution. However, these efforts have been controversial, with some accusing the Vatican of caving to Beijing's demands. Despite the deal, China's Catholics continue to suffer religious oppression, with Beijing implementing policies of sinicization that make adherents more loyal to the Communist Party than their faith. The Catholic Church is not alone in its struggles, as other Christian denominations and religions in China also face intense persecution.
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What You'll Learn
The Vatican-China deal
The exact text of the agreement has never been released to the public, but it is believed to give the Vatican the right to appoint church leadership, including bishops, while also affording the state-controlled church a say in its church leaders. The Vatican has insisted that it retains veto power over the ultimate choice.
However, the deal has been controversial and has faced criticism, particularly from the Catholic right, for seemingly caving to Beijing's demands and selling out the underground faithful in China. There have been accusations of violations on the Beijing side, with several unilateral appointments made without apparent Vatican approval. Despite these challenges, the deal has been periodically renewed since 2018.
The appointment of Catholic bishops in mainland China has been a recurring issue in China-Holy See relations. The Chinese government's position is that bishops should be elected by Chinese Catholics through the Chinese Catholic Patriotic Association (CCPA), which is part of the United Front Work Department of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). This process gives the CCP ultimate control over bishop appointments. In contrast, the Vatican maintains that the appointment of bishops is the prerogative of the Pope, as per Catholic canon law.
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Catholic missionaries in China
Catholic missionaries have been present in China since the 7th century. The earliest Christian missionaries from the Church of the East referred to their religion as "bright teaching" or Jǐngjiào (景教) in Chinese. The term "Christianity" in Western languages is a broad term that includes both Catholics and Protestants, whereas in Chinese, Catholics and Protestants are considered distinct religions.
The first Catholic missionary to enter China was John of Montecorvino, who arrived during the Yuan dynasty and became the first bishop of Khanbaliq (1271-1368). The Italian Matteo Ricci, a Jesuit, led Catholic missionary work in China in the late 16th century, introducing Western science, mathematics, astronomy, and visual arts to the Chinese imperial court. Ricci's work played a significant role in continuing the transmission of knowledge, science, and culture between China and the West, influencing Christian culture in Chinese society today. Other notable Catholic missionaries to China include:
- Johann Adam Schall von Bell (1592-1666), a German Jesuit missionary and astronomer
- Giuseppe Castiglione (1715), a Jesuit
- Jean Joseph Marie Amiot (1750), a Jesuit
In the 19th century, Catholic and Protestant missionaries were expelled from China after the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) won the Chinese Civil War. In 1957, the communist government established the Chinese Catholic Patriotic Association (CCPA) in Beijing, which rejects the authority of the Pope and appoints its own bishops. Today, China's estimated 12 million Catholics are divided between the official, state-controlled church and an underground church loyal to the Pope. While the state-controlled church does not recognize the authority of the Pope, a 2018 deal between China and the Vatican gave the Pope the power to veto any bishop the Chinese government recommends. However, human rights groups and governments around the world have criticized China for its repression of religious expression and persecution of religious minorities.
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Persecution of Catholic leaders
China has a long history of repressing religious expression, both inside and outside its borders. The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) has been known to repress political dissent and religious expression, especially in Hong Kong, where it reestablished control in 2020.
The Catholic Church in China has faced significant persecution, particularly since the 2018 China-Vatican agreement. A report by the Hudson Institute outlines an increased campaign of repression by the Chinese government against the Catholic Church, targeting its leadership. The report highlights the persecution of 10 bishops who have faced indefinite detention, disappearances, police investigations, banishments, threats, and so-called "reeducation".
The Catholic Church in China is divided between an official, state-controlled church that does not recognize papal authority, and an underground church that remains loyal to Rome. The state-controlled church, known as the Chinese Catholic Patriotic Association (CCPA), requires its members to pledge independence from the Holy See. Catholics who acknowledge the authority of the Pope are subject to persecution. The CCPA appoints its bishops, who are expected to uphold the state's interests.
The 2018 agreement between China and the Vatican was meant to unify the divided Catholic flock in China and give the Pope veto power over bishop appointments. However, China has failed to uphold its end of the agreement, unilaterally announcing appointments and pressuring bishops to join the state-sponsored church.
The persecution of Catholic leaders in China has been widely condemned by human rights groups and governments worldwide. The US State Department and the United Nations have been urged to raise the issue of religious persecution in China and share details of Beijing's treatment of Catholic leaders.
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Catholic worship in China
Catholicism in China has a long history, with the first Catholic missionary, John of Montecorvino, arriving in the country during the Yuan dynasty. John of Montecorvino became the first bishop of Khanbaliq (1271–1368). However, after the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) won the Chinese Civil War, Catholic and Protestant missionaries were expelled from the country.
In 1949, the new Communist government started putting pressure on the Roman Catholic Church. In 1951, the papal nuncio, Archbishop Riberi, was expelled from China. The government formed the Three Autonomies Movement to organize the clergy to abandon the Holy See, and by 1953, many bishops, priests, and laypersons were arrested. In 1955, a mass arrest took place in the Shanghai diocese, with more than 200 clergy and faithful, including Bishop Ignatius Kung, arrested for refusing to support the movement.
In 1957, the communist government established the Chinese Catholic Patriotic Association (CCPA) in Beijing, which rejects the authority of the Holy See and appoints its own bishops. The CCPA is under the supervision of the State Administration for Religious Affairs, a state body that was merged into the United Front Work Department of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party in 2018. All legal worship must be conducted through state-approved churches belonging to the CCPA, which does not accept the primacy of the Pope. The chairman of the CCPA, Liu Bainian, has stated that the church needs individuals who "love the country and love religion" and that they should "respect the Constitution, respect the law, and fervently love the socialist motherland". Clergy who resist this development are subject to oppression, including long imprisonment, torture, and martyrdom.
Due to the persecution by the Chinese government, the Catholic Church in China has developed into two communities: the "Patriotic" Church, which operates with the approval of the Chinese authorities, and the "Underground" Church, which remains loyal to the Pope. The Underground Church does not operate in secrecy, but it lacks official approval and support. Catholics who recognize the authority of the Holy See may choose to worship clandestinely to avoid persecution.
In 2018, China and the Holy See reached a provisional agreement giving the Pope the power to veto any bishop recommended by the Chinese government. However, there have been apparent violations of this agreement, with some unilateral appointments made without papal consent. The deal has been criticized for caving to Beijing's demands and selling out the underground faithful in China. Despite the agreement, the Chinese government has continued to persecute Catholic leadership and increase its control over religious matters.
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Catholic resistance to state control
China has a long history of repressing religious expression, both inside and outside its borders. The country has been known to force abortions, sterilize women without their consent, and murder religious minorities to sell their organs on the black market. The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) takes a hostile stance against religion, persecuting groups that attempt to practice their faith outside of the strict confines set by the government.
In 1957, the communist government established the Chinese Catholic Patriotic Association (CCPA) in Beijing, which rejects the authority of the Holy See and appoints its own bishops. Since then, Catholicism has been permitted to operate only under the supervision of the State Administration for Religious Affairs, a state body that was merged into the United Front Work Department of the Central Committee of the CCP in 2018. All legal worship must be conducted through state-approved churches belonging to the CCPA, which does not recognize the primacy of the Roman Pontiff. Clergy who resist this development are subject to oppression, including long imprisonment.
Despite the risks, Catholics in China continue to resist state control. There are an estimated 12 million Catholics in China, divided between an official, state-controlled church and an underground church that remained loyal to Rome through decades of persecution. The underground church is made up of so-called ""underground Catholics" who have historically suffered and continue to suffer the most repression. These Catholics resist worshipping at official CCPA churches and often hold secret gatherings in unregistered Christian "house churches". However, even these house churches are often raided, and their members arrested on charges of working against the interests of the state.
In an attempt to unify the flock, the Vatican signed a deal with the CCP in 2018, giving the Pope the power to veto any bishop recommended by the Chinese government. However, this deal has been criticized for caving to Beijing's demands and selling out the underground faithful in China. Since the deal was signed, Beijing has continued to ramp up the campaign of "sinicizing" religion, making adherents more loyal to the ruling Communist Party than to their own conscience. This has resulted in increased church demolitions, the removal of crosses from churches, and the prevention of minors from worshipping.
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Frequently asked questions
The Catholic Church has had a complicated relationship with China, with a history of persecution and tension. In 2018, the Vatican and China reached an agreement to unify the official, state-controlled church and the underground church loyal to Rome. However, this deal has faced criticism and has not prevented ongoing religious oppression in China.
The Vatican has continued to appoint its own bishops, often secretly, to protect priests from harassment, detention, or imprisonment by Chinese authorities. These bishops are drawn from the underground church, which has historically faced the most repression.
Christians in China face surveillance, restrictions on religious gatherings and literature, and pressure to praise the government and express an ideologically biased version of the Gospel. The Chinese government has also implemented a policy of "'sinicization,'" aiming to make religious adherents more loyal to the Communist Party than their faith.
