Joshua Bennett
On October 31, 1517, German scholar and monk Martin Luther is said to have nailed his argument against the Catholic Church's sale of better treatment after death to a church door in Wittenberg, Germany. This document, known as the 95 Theses, quickly spread debate throughout Europe and led to an irrevocable split in Western Christianity. Luther's ideas became popular with German princes and the people who followed him away from the Catholic Church became known as Protestants. In 1520, Pope Leo X demanded that Luther renounce all of his writings, and when Luther refused, he was excommunicated in January 1521.
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What You'll Learn
Luther's condemnation of the Catholic Church's sale of indulgences
On 31 October 1517, Martin Luther, a German scholar, is said to have nailed his Ninety-Five Theses to the door of a church in Wittenberg. This document contained Luther's argument against the Catholic Church's sale of better treatment after death. Luther's Ninety-Five Theses quickly spread debate throughout Europe, leading to an irrevocable split in Western Christianity and the birth of Protestantism.
The Catholic Church defined an indulgence as "a remission before God of the temporal punishment due to sins whose guilt has already been forgiven". Indulgences were sold by the Church as writs, which were supposed to reduce the temporal punishment in purgatory for sins committed by the purchasers or their loved ones. Luther objected to the sale of indulgences on several grounds. Firstly, he argued that indulgences were not supported by the Bible and lacked theological justification. Secondly, he believed that the sale of indulgences encouraged greed and other vices. Luther also disagreed with the Catholic Church's teaching that believers are purified in the fire of Purgatory before reaching heaven.
In addition to his objections to the sale of indulgences, Luther held other beliefs that were at odds with Catholic doctrine. For example, he disapproved of clerical celibacy and taught that the Bible alone was the source of revelation, rather than the law of the Catholic Church or Papal bulls. Luther also believed that rulers should appoint clergy members, which would give them a more powerful role and weaken church authority.
In response to Luther's reproach and the movement he incited, the Catholic Church initiated the Counter-Reformation (1545-c.1700), during which abuses were rectified and policies were reformed, including the moderation and reevaluation of indulgences. Despite these reforms, the practice of selling indulgences was never abolished and the Catholic Church still offers a form of indulgences today.
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Luther's belief in justification by faith alone
Martin Luther's doctrine of sola fide, or justification by faith alone, was a central belief in his theology. Luther's idea of sola fide was that faith alone, without the works of the law, justifies a person before God. This was in direct contradiction to the Catholic Church's teaching, which held that believers are purified in the fire of Purgatory before reaching heaven. Luther's doctrine of sola fide was a rallying cry of the Lutheran cause and a chief distinction of Lutheranism from Catholicism.
Luther's belief in sola fide was based on his interpretation of Scripture. He taught that the Bible alone was the source of revelation and that "neither the Church nor the pope can establish articles of faith. These must come from Scripture". Luther's lectures on the Psalms, Romans, Galatians, and Hebrews between 1513 and 1518 helped him develop this foundational doctrine.
According to Luther, justification by faith alone is the "head and cornerstone" of the church. He believed that it alone begets, nourishes, builds, preserves, and defends the church of God, and without it, the church cannot exist. Luther saw faith as a gift from God, given through the gospel, and that this faith alone, not human works, justifies a person before God.
Luther's doctrine of sola fide was not without precedent. The doctrine of faith alone can be seen in the theologies of proto-Protestant reformers such as Wessel Gansfort, Jacques Lefèvre d'Étaples, and possibly Johann Pupper. It also appears in the writings of John Wycliffe, who stated, "Trust wholly in Christ; rely altogether on his sufferings; beware of seeking to be justified in any other way than by his righteousness".
In recent years, there has been a move towards common ground between Protestants and Catholics on the issue of salvation. In 1999, Lutherans and Catholics officially reached a consensus on many of their beliefs about salvation, and a Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification was issued, allowing different denominational emphases and terminology.
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Luther's criticism of the Catholic Church's abuses
On 31 October 1517, Martin Luther, a German scholar and professor of moral theology at the University of Wittenberg, nailed his Ninety-Five Theses to the door of All Saints' Church in Wittenberg, Germany. This document, written in Latin, listed Luther's criticisms of the Catholic Church and quickly spread throughout Europe, initiating the Protestant Reformation and the birth of Protestantism.
Luther's primary criticism concerned the Catholic Church's practice of selling indulgences, which were certificates that purported to reduce the temporal punishment in Purgatory for sins committed by the purchaser or their loved ones. Luther disagreed with this practice, arguing that buying indulgences had no impact on whether people would get into heaven. He believed that the repentance required by Christ for sins to be forgiven involved inner spiritual repentance, rather than the mere external sacramental confession offered by the Church.
In addition to his opposition to the sale of indulgences, Luther's Ninety-Five Theses also pointed to other abuses within the Catholic Church. These included a lack of education among priests and corruption among the higher leaders of the Church. Luther also criticised the Catholic Church's tradition of clerical celibacy, arguing that the Bible was the sole source of revelation and that neither the Church nor the Pope could establish articles of faith. He believed that all Christians were equal before God, and therefore there was no need for a pope. Luther also disagreed with the idea that the Church or Papal bulls were the ultimate authority for Christians, instead teaching that the Bible was the only true authority.
Luther's criticisms of the Catholic Church led to his excommunication in 1521 after he publicly burned a papal bull condemning him and banning his works. Despite this, Luther continued to write and spread his ideas, which gained popularity, particularly among German princes who sought freedom from the Pope's authority.
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Luther's rejection of clerical celibacy
On 31 October 1517, German scholar Martin Luther is said to have nailed his argument against the Catholic Church's sale of better treatment after death to a church door in Wittenberg. This event sparked an irrevocable split in Western Christianity, with Luther's ideas spreading throughout Europe within a year.
Luther's Ninety-Five Theses criticised the Catholic Church's sale of indulgences, which were believed to reduce believers' need for purification from the effects of sin in Purgatory before they could enter heaven. Luther also took issue with the Catholic Church's tradition of clerical celibacy, which he himself rejected by marrying Katharina von Bora, a runaway nun, in 1525. They had six children together.
Luther and other reformers questioned the practice of clerical celibacy on both scriptural and practical grounds. They argued that celibacy was not necessary for a religious life or for priests, and that marriage was a life of sacrifice and service, ordained by God to combat the sinfulness of sexual desire. Practically, it was clear that many priests were unable to live celibate lives, as depicted in popular tales, plays, and songs.
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Luther's defiance of Pope Leo X's bull
On June 15, 1520, Pope Leo X issued a bull – a statement of the Pope’s authority – condemning Martin Luther and banning his works. This papal bull, titled Exsurge Domine (Arise, O Lord), gave Luther sixty days to decide how to respond.
The bull objected to Luther’s teachings about penance, indulgences, the pope’s authority, good works, burning heretics, purgatory, and whether monks could beg for alms, among other topics. It also called for the burning of Luther's books and threatened excommunication if he didn't recant. Luther, along with his "supporters, adherents, and accomplices", were given sixty days to desist "from preaching, both expounding their views and denouncing others, and from publishing books and pamphlets concerning some or all of their errors". Luther was also instructed to inform the Pope of his recantation through an open document sealed by two prelates or to personally appear in Rome.
In defiance of the Pope, Luther chose to publicly burn the bull. On December 10, 1520, sixty days after receiving the bull, Luther invited the local university faculty and students to assemble at the Elster Gate in Wittenberg. A bonfire was lit, and volumes of canon law, papal constitutions, and works of scholastic theology were burned. Luther himself tossed a copy of the bull into the flames, declaring:
> Because you have confounded the truth [or, the saints] of God, today the Lord confounds you. Into the fire with you!
This act of defiance marked the complete break between Luther and the Catholic Church. In January 1521, Pope Leo X excommunicated Luther.
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Frequently asked questions
Yes, the Catholic Church condemned Martin Luther. In 1520, Pope Leo X issued a bull—a statement of the Pope's authority—condemning Luther and banning his works. Luther responded by publicly burning the bull, completing his break with the church.
Martin Luther was condemned for his criticism of the Catholic Church and its practices, particularly the sale of indulgences. Luther also criticised church abuses and the authority of the Pope.
Indulgences were pieces of paper sold by the Catholic Church that were supposed to reduce a person's time in purgatory and help them get to heaven faster. Luther disagreed with this practice, arguing that buying indulgences had no impact on whether or not people would get into heaven.
Yes, after breaking away from the Catholic Church in 1520, Martin Luther set up a new church according to his own ideas. This led to an irrevocable split in Western Christianity, with those who followed Luther becoming known as Protestants.
No, in addition to his criticism of the Catholic Church, Martin Luther also expressed staunchly antisemitic views and wrote negatively about Muslims and Anabaptists.
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