Rachel Evans
The French Revolution and the French Wars of Religion were tumultuous periods for the Catholic Church in France. The Church's wealth and abuses led to distrust among the French populace, and the Revolution brought about attempts to reform or abolish the Church's power. The French population split between supporters of the 'Constitutional Church' and those loyal to refractory priests, causing a schism among French Catholics. During the Wars of Religion, Catholic confraternities and leagues defied the law, leading to Huguenot leaders fleeing and their followers being murdered. The Huguenots, who comprised about 8-10% of the French population, were weakened by these massacres, and many emigrated or reconverted to Catholicism. Despite these challenges, France remained predominantly Catholic, with 98.4% of the population identifying as Catholic in 1901. The country's Catholic history and traditions were emphasised after the Great War, and Paris was the largest Catholic city at the turn of the century.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| French Revolution | 1789 |
| Concordat of Francis I | 1515-1547 |
| Concordat of Bologna | 1516 |
| French-German Alliance | 1535 |
| Affair of the Placards | 1534 |
| Colloquy of Poissy | 1561 |
| French Wars of Religion | 1562-1598 |
| Edict of Nantes | 1598 |
| Revocation of Edict of Nantes | 1685 |
| Largest Catholic Population | 1901 |
| St. Joan of Arc Canonized | 1920 |
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What You'll Learn
French Wars of Religion
The French Wars of Religion were a series of eight civil wars fought between French Catholics and Protestants (known as Huguenots) from 1562 to 1598. The conflict arose due to rising tensions between the two religious groups since 1534, which worsened after the death of Henry II in 1547. The wars were marked by periods of armed peace and power struggles, with complex diplomatic negotiations and agreements failing to prevent renewed conflict. The exact number of wars and their dates are still debated by historians, but the generally accepted chronology identifies eight wars, each named after its respective period.
The First War of Religion began in 1562 with the Massacre of Vassy, where Francis, Duke of Guise, sent his men to disperse a Protestant service, resulting in the deaths of at least 50 worshippers. This sparked an uprising in the provinces, and both factions quickly blamed each other, fuelling tensions. The war concluded in 1563 with a compromise, but the peace was short-lived.
The Second War of Religion (1567-1568) was triggered by the failure of the Peace of Longjumeau, which had ended the first war. The third war (1568-1570) began with the surprise capture of King Charles IX by the Huguenot leader Louis of Condé. The fourth war (1572-1573) included the notorious St. Bartholomew's Day massacre, where thousands of Huguenots were killed by Catholic forces. The fifth war (1575-1576) ended with a peace compromise in 1576, granting Huguenots freedom of worship.
The Sixth War of Religion (1576-1577) started due to the failure of the previous peace, and the seventh war (1580) was also brief, ending with the Treaty of Fleix. The Eighth War of Religion (1585-1589) was also known as the War of the Three Henrys and culminated in the conversion of Henry of Navarre, later Henry IV, to Catholicism in 1593.
The wars concluded in 1598 with the Edict of Nantes, issued by Henry IV, which granted substantial rights and freedoms to the Huguenots while maintaining Catholic sovereignty. This compromise ended the open conflict, but religious tensions persisted and erupted again in the 1620s with a fresh round of Huguenot rebellions. The French Wars of Religion resulted in the deaths of between two and four million people and severely damaged the power of the French monarchy. Despite the Protestant forces winning the final battles, Catholicism ultimately triumphed, and France remained predominantly Catholic.
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French Revolution and the Catholic Church
In 1789, the year the French Revolution broke out, Catholicism was the official religion of the French state. The French Catholic Church, known as the Gallican Church, recognised the authority of the Pope as the head of the Roman Catholic Church. However, it had negotiated certain liberties that privileged the authority of the French monarch, giving it a distinct national identity characterised by considerable autonomy.
The French population of 28 million was almost entirely Catholic, with full membership of the state denied to Protestant and Jewish minorities. Being French effectively meant being Catholic. However, the Catholic Church was the largest landowner in the country and controlled vast properties, which generated massive revenues from tenants. The Church also had enormous income from the collection of compulsory tithes. As the Church kept the registry of births, deaths, and marriages, and was the only institution that provided hospitals and education in most parts of the country, it influenced all citizens.
Calls for the reform or abolition of the tithe and for the limitation of Church property were joined by complaints from parish priests who, excluded from the wealth bestowed upon the upper echelons of the Church hierarchy, often struggled to get by. The Catholic Church may have been the church of the majority of the French people, but its wealth and perceived abuses meant that it did not always have their trust. On the eve of the Revolution, the French state was on the verge of bankruptcy.
The revolutionary governing bodies were particularly determined to destroy every vestige of the Roman Catholic Church. The Constituent Assembly began the campaign against the Church by stating in the Declaration of the Rights of Man, "no body or individual may exercise any authority which does not proceed directly from the nation." In other words, the Church could no longer have any say in public matters. The secular state would now have the final word over every aspect of human and social life.
The revolutionary authorities suppressed the Church, abolished the Catholic monarchy, nationalised Church property, exiled 30,000 priests, and killed hundreds more. In October 1793, the Christian calendar was replaced with one reckoned from the date of the Revolution, and Festivals of Liberty, Reason, and the Supreme Being were scheduled. New forms of moral religion emerged, including the deistic Cult of the Supreme Being and the atheistic Cult of Reason, with the revolutionary government briefly mandating observance of the former in April 1794.
The French population gradually split between those who supported the 'Constitutional Church' and those who remained loyal to refractory priests, initially allowed to continue practising. Rather than confirming the allegiance of French clergy to a state-operated church, the oath had put before them a decision that, by forcing them to choose between the Constitutional Church and Rome, would cause a schism among French Catholics for the next decade and generate hostility towards the Revolution and its aims.
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The role of Napoleon
The French Revolution of 1789 saw the closure of churches and the suppression of religious worship in France. The country's relationship with the Catholic Church was further strained by the French declaration of war on Austria in 1792, which cast suspicion on refractory clergy and their followers, who were suspected of plotting with the enemy.
Napoleon came to power in 1799, and his role in the continued presence of the Catholic Church in France was complex and multifaceted. On the one hand, Napoleon recognised the benefits of reconciling with the Church, as it could be used to promote and consolidate his rule throughout the country. He also appreciated the cost-saving benefits of the Church, such as the state-sponsored re-establishment of religious congregations to run hospitals and schools.
Napoleon set about formalising the Church's place in France, ensuring that loyal membership of the Church and the state were no longer mutually exclusive. This culminated in the Concordat of 1801, an agreement between Napoleon Bonaparte and Pope Pius VII that reaffirmed the Roman Catholic Church as the majority church of France and restored some of its civil status. The Concordat also contained the "Organic Articles", which gave Napoleon significant control over the Church in France.
Napoleon increasingly associated his personal rule with the Church, insisting on the pope's attendance at his coronation ceremony in Paris in 1804 and introducing a feast day for the rediscovered 'Saint Napoleon'. He also occupied Rome in 1808, leading to the breaking point in his relationship with the Pope, who excommunicated him. Napoleon had two successive popes held prisoner, Pius VI and Pius VII.
Despite these conflicts, Napoleon did express a personal belief in God and a desire to fulfil the duties of the Catholic religion. On his deathbed in 1821, he told General Charles Tristan, "I was born in the Catholic religion. I wish to fulfill the duties it imposes, and receive the succour it administers."
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The Counter Reformation
The Counter-Reformation was a movement of reform within the Roman Catholic Church in the 16th and 17th centuries. It was a reaction to the Protestant Reformation, which had spread across Europe, including France, in the years following Martin Luther's teachings. The Counter-Reformation aimed to solidify Catholic doctrine opposed by Protestants, such as the authority of the pope and the veneration of saints, while also addressing the abuses and problems within the Catholic Church that had inspired the Reformation, including the sale of indulgences.
The Jesuits, founded in 1540, were crucial to the Counter-Reformation. They established universities and colleges and contributed to the movement's two major objectives: Catholic education and missionary work. The Jesuits helped spread the Counter-Reformation throughout Europe, particularly in France, where they clashed with Huguenots (Reformed Protestants) in a series of wars from 1562 until the Edict of Nantes brought religious peace in 1598.
The Council of Trent (1545-1563) was a pivotal moment in the Counter-Reformation, with dogma and disciplinary reforms passed over five popes' reigns and 25 sessions. The council's efforts to reform the Church and clergy had been called for by humanists and some clergy members for years due to concerns about empty churches and the behaviour of the regular and secular clergy. The council also attempted to engage with Lutherans, inviting a Protestant delegation to attend, but no dialogue was established.
The Catholic Church in France during the Counter-Reformation was influenced by the country's foreign policy, which sought to uphold Catholicism in Europe. However, the French Revolution brought significant changes, with the suppression of religious orders and the emergence of a schism among French Catholics between those supporting the 'Constitutional Church' and those loyal to refractory priests. Napoleon's rule further complicated relations with Rome, as he associated his reign with the Church while also introducing policies that challenged the authority of the papacy.
The Counter-Reformation had a significant impact on Catholicism in France, with efforts to stop the expansion of Protestantism and assert the authority of the pope. While France continued to have a strong Catholic presence, with the largest number of Catholic Christians in 1901, the Revolution and subsequent political developments shaped the relationship between the Church and the state.
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French Lutheranism
During the Reformation, Lutheranism took root in two regions that later became part of France: Alsace and the county of Montbéliard. These areas were then part of the German empire, and Lutheranism flourished among the German-speaking populations. Even after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685, which persecuted Huguenots and other Protestants, Lutheran communities in these regions persisted.
In Paris, Lutheranism was introduced by foreigners and immigrants, particularly those of German origin. For over two centuries, Lutheranism was the only form of Protestant worship permitted in the city. The first Lutheran parish in Paris, the Billettes, was established by an imperial decree in 1808, serving a significant Lutheran community that included both foreigners and immigrants from Alsace and Montbéliard.
The practice of French Lutheranism was shaped by various political and religious developments over time. The Napoleonic religious legislation of 1801 and 1802, known as the Concordat of 1801 and the Organic Articles of 1802, reorganised French Lutheranism, forming the Église de la Confession d'Augsbourg de France. This synod established parish councils and sought to create a theology university in Paris to serve both Lutheran and Reformed congregations.
In the 19th century, French Lutheranism was influenced by the Revival movement, particularly in Alsace and Montbéliard, leading to the establishment of numerous diaconal organisations. At the same time, Lutheranism in Paris experienced growth due to the arrival of Alsatian and German craftsmen and tradesmen who were strongly bonded to orthodox Lutheranism.
Today, Lutheranism is a minority denomination within the broader context of French Protestantism. According to a 2020 survey, Protestants make up about 3% of the French population, with numerous Evangelical Protestants driving renewed interest in Protestantism. Many Lutheran congregations have merged with Reformed churches, such as the United Protestant Church of France, reflecting a long history of interaction and collaboration between these Protestant traditions in France.
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Frequently asked questions
Yes, but the country's relationship with the Catholic Church was complicated. In the 1500s, France was the sole embodiment of institutionalized Christianity in Western Europe, with the Pope in Rome as its head. However, by the mid-1500s, Protestantism had won over a million French people and 40% of the country's nobility. In the 1600s, France upheld Protestantism during the Thirty Years' War.
No, but the Protestant Reformation did have a significant impact on the country. In the mid-1500s, French Protestants, known as Huguenots, made up about 10% of the population. By the late 1500s, the Huguenots had leaders and formed a majority in a small number of cities. However, the strengthened Catholic monarchy under Louis XIV eroded their freedoms, culminating in the revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685.
The progress of the Reformation in France depended on the attitude of the crown. Francis I showed initial hostility but later sought good relations with the Lutheran German princes. He also wanted to maintain control of the Catholic Church in France, which he achieved through the Concordat of Bologna in 1516. The French monarchy generally tried to remain neutral in the religious debate until the Affair of the Placards in 1534, when anti-Catholic posters appeared in Paris and at the royal court.
The French Revolution opened the way for a new approach to the Catholic Church's involvement in the country. The clergy agreed to give up the tithe and allow the state to take control of Church property. The Revolution also caused a schism among French Catholics, with some supporting the 'Constitutional Church' and others remaining loyal to refractory priests.
