Rachel Evans
The arrival of European settlers in the Americas brought with it a host of infectious diseases, including smallpox, which had a devastating impact on Native American populations. While not all outbreaks were deliberately caused by settlers, there is evidence of several instances where smallpox-infected blankets were given to Native Americans, in an attempt to reduce their numbers. The most infamous of these occurred in 1763 at Fort Pitt, where British officials gave infected blankets to Delaware tribe members. Catholic missionaries were also involved in both the treatment and vaccination of Native Americans during the 1862 smallpox epidemic, which had a mortality rate of over 50% for tribes along the Pacific Northwest Coast.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Catholic missionaries vaccinating Indians | Father Leon Fouquet, a Catholic Missionary, reportedly vaccinated 3,400 Indians along the lower Fraser River during the 1862 smallpox epidemic |
| Other Catholic missions along the Strait of Georgia and in Puget Sound also received supplies to vaccinate nearby tribes | |
| Catholic missionaries spreading smallpox | In 1763, Jesuit missionaries gave smallpox-laden blankets to the Huron Indians who refused to be baptized and convert to Christianity. More than 10,000 Huron Indians died from smallpox |
| In 1862, the Colony of Vancouver Island and the Colony of British Columbia could have prevented the smallpox epidemic but chose not to, and in some ways facilitated it | |
| In 1763, British general Jeffrey Amherst gave blankets taken from infected corpses to deliberately infect nearby natives | |
| In 1775, during the American Revolutionary War, George Washington wrote in a letter that he believed the British military was deliberately starting a smallpox outbreak | |
| Indians blaming missionaries for smallpox | The New Mexico Pueblo and the Hurons blamed members of their communities as well as white missionaries for witchcraft |
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What You'll Learn
- Jesuit missionaries deliberately gave infected blankets to the Huron Indians
- The British general Jeffrey Amherst gave infected blankets to Native Americans
- French Jesuit missionaries withheld baptism from those who refused to convert to Christianity
- The 1862 smallpox epidemic was carried from San Francisco to Victoria, devastating indigenous peoples
- The Songhees tribe survived the 1862 smallpox epidemic due to vaccinations and self-imposed quarantine
Jesuit missionaries deliberately gave infected blankets to the Huron Indians
Jesuit missionaries first arrived in New France in the seventeenth century. Their goal was to convert native peoples, such as the Huron, to Christianity and instill European values within them. The Jesuits studied native languages and spoke to the Huron about Christianity on their own terms. They translated hymns, prayers, and other liturgical texts into the Huron language, which they recited in front of large groups. They also wrote De Religione, a guide to Christianity for the Huron, in the Huron language.
However, the Jesuits often encountered resistance from the Huron, who had their own spiritual beliefs. War and violent conflict between tribes helped create a more receptive audience to Christianity and increased the Jesuits' potential for successful conversion. The Jesuits also used fear tactics to convert natives, such as showing them frightening pictures of Hell.
While it is unclear whether Jesuit missionaries deliberately gave infected blankets to the Huron Indians, there is evidence that smallpox-laden blankets were used as a biological weapon against Native Americans by French Jesuit missionaries. According to sources, the missionaries told the Huron that if they were baptized and converted to Christianity, they would be spared the disease. Those who refused were provided with smallpox-laden blankets, resulting in the deaths of more than 10,000 Huron Indians.
The colonial weaponization of smallpox against Native Americans was first reported by 19th-century historian Francis Parkman, who discovered correspondence between British officials discussing its use. The most infamous records of intentionally spreading smallpox to Native Americans occurred in 1763 at Fort Pitt, where British officials gave blankets and handkerchiefs believed to have been in contact with smallpox-infected individuals to members of the Delaware tribe. This incident, however, may not have been effective in spreading smallpox, as indicated by the lack of bragging in the perpetrator's journal and the fact that the infection on the blankets was likely too old to still be contagious.
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The British general Jeffrey Amherst gave infected blankets to Native Americans
The history of Native American disease and epidemics is composed of two elements: indigenous diseases and those brought by settlers to the Americas from the Old World (Africa, Asia, and Europe). The arrival of Europeans in the Americas and the Columbian exchange of microorganisms introduced several new infectious diseases to the Americas.
One such disease was smallpox, a highly contagious disease caused by the variola virus in the Orthopoxvirus family. Smallpox was spread through exposure to droplets from coughing or sneezing and, in later stages, through contact with contaminated objects like clothing and bedding. Smallpox had a devastating impact on Native American populations, with entire tribes being wiped out.
There is evidence that, in some cases, smallpox was deliberately spread to Native Americans by white settlers as a form of biological warfare. One of the most infamous instances occurred in 1763 at Fort Pitt (present-day Pittsburgh). On June 24, 1763, William Trent, a fur trader commissioned at Fort Pitt, wrote in his journal that they had given two blankets and a handkerchief "out of the Small pox Hospital. I hope it will have the desired effect." This was confirmed by military hospital records, which showed that these items were "taken from people in the Hospital to Convey the Smallpox to the Indians."
British General Sir Jeffrey Amherst was implicated in this incident. Amherst was the commander-in-chief of the British forces during the Seven Years' War and is credited with the successful campaign to conquer the territory of New France. However, his legacy is controversial due to his involvement in the deliberate spread of smallpox to Native Americans. Amherst urged his subordinate, Colonel Henry Bouquet, to find a way to infect France's Native American allies with smallpox. In a letter to Bouquet, Amherst wrote, "You will Do well to try to Innoculate [sic] the Indians by means of Blankets, as well as to try Every other method that can serve to Extirpate this Execrable Race."
Amherst's desire to exterminate the indigenous people has been viewed as a dark stain on his legacy, and there have been calls to remove his name from streets, buildings, and other places of honour. While some have doubted the allegations against Amherst, the evidence suggests that he played a role in the distribution of smallpox-infected blankets to Native Americans, contributing to the devastating impact of the disease on their communities.
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French Jesuit missionaries withheld baptism from those who refused to convert to Christianity
The arrival of European settlers in the Americas brought about a period of infectious disease and epidemics among Native Americans. The French Jesuit missionaries were a part of this colonial drive, with the goal of converting the Indigenous peoples to Christianity. The Jesuits established settlements in New France along the Saint Lawrence River between 1634 and 1655, with the intention of converting the local Huron population.
The Jesuits believed that French imperial expansion and their proselytization efforts were intertwined. They saw French expansionism as providential, believing it was ordained by Christ as it would bring more people to the Christian faith. This belief led them to support aggressive actions against the Indigenous peoples, contributing to the growth of the French empire. The Jesuits also believed that economic prosperity was necessary for the large-scale conversion of the Indigenous populations, as it would improve their well-being and make them more receptive to Christianity.
The Jesuits' missionary methods involved juxtaposing Christian practices with elements of Huron culture. They studied the native language and translated Christian texts, such as prayers and hymns, into the Huron language. They also drew parallels between Catholicism and Indian practices, highlighting the mystical dimension and symbolism of Catholicism. However, the Jesuits insisted on the incompatibility of Christianity and traditional spirituality, leading to division and factionalism within the Huron communities.
The Jesuits withheld baptism from those Hurons who refused to convert to Christianity. They believed that these individuals were dangerously combining traditional practices with Christian concepts. The Hurons who resisted conversion feared the consequences of breaking their ritual, familial, and communal ties. They also interpreted baptism as a sinister act of sorcery, especially during times of widespread disease. As a result, resistance to the Jesuit missions grew, and the Jesuits faced increasing challenges in their efforts to convert the Indigenous peoples.
The spread of smallpox among Native Americans was a significant consequence of European settlement. While not all outbreaks were deliberately caused by settlers, there is evidence that actions were taken to intentionally facilitate its spread. For example, during the siege of Fort Pitt in 1763, British officials gave blankets and handkerchiefs believed to have been infected with smallpox to members of the Delaware tribe, in the hope of spreading the disease to nearby tribes. This incident contributed to the perception that settlers distributed contaminated items to reduce the population of Native Americans resisting their expansion.
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The 1862 smallpox epidemic was carried from San Francisco to Victoria, devastating indigenous peoples
The 1862 smallpox epidemic, which was carried from San Francisco to Victoria, had a devastating impact on the indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast. The disease was brought to Victoria by the steamship Brother Jonathan, which carried 350 passengers from San Francisco, arriving on March 12, 1862. Rumours of the disease spread quickly, and the first cases were confirmed by The Daily British Colonist on March 18, with a second case reported on March 19. Another steamship, the Oregon, arrived in Victoria from San Francisco on March 24, carrying at least one passenger infected with smallpox.
The epidemic had a devastating impact on the indigenous peoples of the region, with a death rate of over 50% along the Pacific Northwest Coast, from Puget Sound to Southeast Alaska. In some areas, the native population declined by up to 90%. The worst devastation occurred in the southern Alaska panhandle. Robert Boyd estimates that about 15,000 natives remained along the northwest coast after the epidemic, down from nearly 30,000 before the disease struck.
The response to the epidemic by colonial authorities has been criticised. While they used quarantine, smallpox vaccine, and inoculation to control the disease among colonists and settlers, they did little to prevent its spread among indigenous peoples. Some historians have characterised the epidemic as a deliberate genocide, arguing that the colonies of Vancouver Island and British Columbia could have done more to prevent it but instead facilitated its spread.
The 1862 epidemic was not an isolated incident but part of a series of smallpox outbreaks among indigenous peoples following European contact. These outbreaks were often deliberately spread by white settlers as a form of biological warfare, using contaminated blankets and other objects to infect Native Americans. While not every outbreak was intentionally caused, there is significant evidence of intentional spread, including written records from the time. The introduction and spread of smallpox and other infectious diseases by settlers had a devastating impact on indigenous peoples, with entire tribes wiped out and populations decimated.
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The Songhees tribe survived the 1862 smallpox epidemic due to vaccinations and self-imposed quarantine
The Songhees tribe, also known as the Lekwungen, survived the 1862 smallpox epidemic due to a combination of vaccinations and self-imposed quarantine. The epidemic, which originated in San Francisco and arrived in Victoria, British Columbia, on the steamship Brother Jonathan, devastated the indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast, with a death rate of over 50%.
The Songhees, who resided near Victoria, were fortunate to receive vaccinations from Dr. Helmcken, who vaccinated over 500 natives, with a focus on the Songhees tribe. The Songhees also proactively left their Vancouver Island villages and moved to a nearby island in the Haro Strait, now known as Discovery Island, thus self-imposing a quarantine to limit the spread of the disease.
These actions proved to be effective, as the Songhees tribe survived the epidemic with minimal losses. This outcome stood in stark contrast to the fate of other tribes, such as the Haida, Heiltsuk, and Kwakwakaʼwakw, who suffered significant population declines, with some villages being abandoned due to high death tolls.
The 1862 smallpox epidemic highlighted the vulnerability of Native American communities to diseases introduced by settlers from the Old World (Africa, Asia, and Europe). While not every outbreak was deliberately caused by white settlers, there is evidence of instances where actions were taken to intentionally spread smallpox among Native Americans, such as the infamous incident at Fort Pitt in 1763.
The Songhees tribe's survival during the 1862 epidemic serves as a testament to the effectiveness of vaccinations and proactive quarantine measures in combating infectious diseases.
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Frequently asked questions
There is no clear evidence that Catholic missionaries gave Indians smallpox. However, there is evidence that smallpox was spread to Indians by white settlers, soldiers, and traders.
Smallpox is a highly contagious disease caused by the variola virus in the Orthopoxvirus family. It usually enters the body through the nose or throat and then travels to the lungs, where it multiplies and spreads to the lymphatic system.
Smallpox was brought to the Americas by European settlers. It is believed that the disease was spread to Indians through direct contact with infected individuals, as well as through the distribution of contaminated items such as blankets and clothing.
Smallpox had a devastating impact on Indian communities, with high mortality and depopulation rates. It is estimated that during the 1837-1840 epidemic, the death toll ranged from 100,000 to 300,000, with entire tribes being wiped out. The spread of smallpox and other diseases contributed to the depopulation of Native Americans during European contact.
