Michael Brooks
Northern Ireland has a long history of conflict and segregation between its two main voting blocs: Irish nationalist/republicans (mainly Roman Catholic) and unionist/loyalist (mainly Protestant). This divide is deeply rooted in culture and politics, with Catholics generally identifying as pro-Irish and nationalists, while Protestants see themselves as pro-British and unionists. While the violent conflict known as The Troubles ended with a peace deal in 1998, the legacy of this painful history continues to impact Northern Ireland today, with Catholics and Protestants still living largely separate lives. The question of whether Catholics have been or continue to be treated unfairly in Northern Ireland is a complex one that lies at the heart of understanding the region's past and present.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Education | Most state schools are predominantly Protestant, while most Catholic children attend schools maintained by the Catholic Church |
| Employment | Catholics faced discrimination in employment, particularly at senior levels of the public sector |
| Housing | Catholics faced unequal access to housing, with public housing heavily segregated between the two communities |
| Political Representation | Electoral districts were gerrymandered to concentrate and minimize Catholic representation |
| Voting Rights | Catholics were denied equal voting rights, with a lack of "one man-one vote" |
| Culture and Identity | Catholics identified as pro-Irish and nationalist, seeking to unite Northern Ireland with the Republic of Ireland, while Protestants identified as pro-British and unionist |
| Historical Context | British Protestants subjugated Ireland's native Catholic population, leading to a struggle for emancipation and nationalist pursuits |
| Social Interaction | Catholics and Protestants lead largely separate lives, with limited integration and ongoing intercommunal tensions |
| Peace Walls | The number of peace walls separating Catholic and Protestant communities has increased since the Troubles |
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What You'll Learn
Segregated education
The roots of segregated education in Northern Ireland lie in the country's history. The island was invaded by the Anglo-Normans in the 12th century, leaving a wave of settlers whose descendants became known as the "Old English". For centuries, England and Great Britain dominated affairs in Ireland, including widespread displacement of Irish landholders by British landlords. The successful "plantations" in the early 17th century in Ulster, the northernmost province, included English and Scottish tenants, further solidifying British control.
During the Irish War of Independence (1919-1921), the British Parliament enacted the Government of Ireland Act, dividing the island into two self-governing areas: Northern Ireland, comprising six counties with Protestant loyalist majorities, and Southern Ireland, made up of the remaining 26 counties. In 1922, Northern Ireland began functioning as a self-governing region of the United Kingdom, with a population that was two-thirds Protestant and one-third Catholic.
The divide between Catholics and Protestants in Northern Ireland was not primarily theological but rather grounded in culture and politics. Catholics generally identified as Irish and sought the incorporation of Northern Ireland into the Irish state, while Protestants saw themselves as British and feared losing their culture and privileges in a united Ireland. This cultural and political divide was reflected in the education system, with most state schools predominantly Protestant and Catholic children mainly attending schools maintained by the Catholic Church.
The complexity of the Northern Irish education system has made the transition to integrated education challenging. The Protestant churches historically ran many state schools and still retain the right to appoint governors, often resulting in multiple Protestant clerics on state school boards. Catholic Maintained schools, while state-funded, are run by the Council for Catholic Maintained Schools (CCMS) and follow a Catholic ethos. The schools are also segmented by class, with academic selection still in place through privately set exams by grammar schools.
Despite the challenges, there have been efforts to promote integrated education. The 1998 Good Friday Agreement recognised the importance of educating children together, and the Integrated Education Act of 2022 aims to provide more support for integrated education. Additionally, Queen's University Belfast's research has influenced the development of shared education programmes in Northern Ireland, promoting reconciliation and school improvement. These programmes have gained international recognition, with adaptations in other divided societies, including Israel and North Macedonia.
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Employment discrimination
Catholics in Northern Ireland have historically faced discrimination in employment, with a long history of prejudice and violence between Catholics and Protestants. This discrimination was particularly evident in the 1960s, with Catholics facing barriers in both the public and private sectors.
In the public sector, Catholics encountered significant obstacles in obtaining senior positions, especially in the civil service. For example, a 1969 report by the Cameron Commission revealed that in County Fermanagh, no senior council posts were held by Catholics, despite Catholics making up the majority of the population. Similar patterns were observed in other areas, indicating a widespread bias towards Protestants in senior public sector roles.
The private sector, particularly private engineering firms, also witnessed significant anti-Catholic discrimination. Notable examples include Harland and Wolff shipyard and Mackies textile machinery company, which employed very few Catholics. In his book, Paddy Devlin recounted experiencing discrimination and abuse from his colleagues at Mackies due to his Catholic faith. R.G. Cooper, who worked in the engineering industry in the 1960s, confirmed that Catholic applicants were often "weeded out" early in the hiring process.
Discriminatory hiring practices were driven by sectarianism and a sense of ownership and entitlement among Protestant Unionists, who owned or controlled most large employers in Northern Ireland. Unionists believed that due to Northern Ireland's industrialisation and trade links with Britain, jobs should be reserved for those loyal to Britain, further marginalising Catholics.
The British government has since taken steps to address religious discrimination in Northern Ireland, introducing laws and regulations since the mid-1990s to prohibit discrimination on religious grounds. The Fair Employment Commission has been granted statutory powers to investigate allegations of discriminatory practices, significantly reducing segregation in the workplace.
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Housing segregation
The extent of housing segregation increased with the outbreak of the Troubles. In 1969, a significant proportion of Protestants and Catholics lived in areas where they were in the majority. However, by 1972, due to large-scale flight from mixed areas, the segregation had intensified, with almost all Protestants (99%) and most Catholics (75%) living in streets dominated by their own denomination. The 1970s in Belfast were marked by rising residential segregation, and this trend continued despite the subsequent peace process.
The 1971 census data revealed that Catholics had a disproportionately large share of social housing in Northern Ireland, constituting 26% of households but occupying 31% of social housing units. This advantage was more pronounced in certain areas, such as unionist-controlled Belfast. However, it is important to note that the overall picture is complex, with variation between different regions.
In recent years, inequalities in access to social housing have persisted, with Catholics facing longer waiting times for social housing in certain areas, such as Belfast West. Additionally, there have been instances of controversial land acquisitions and planning decisions that have favoured Protestant areas over Catholic ones, further exacerbating the housing disparities.
To address these issues, the British government has introduced laws and regulations since the mid-1990s to prohibit discrimination on religious grounds. The Fair Employment Commission has been granted statutory powers to investigate allegations of discriminatory practices in Northern Ireland, contributing to a significant reduction in segregation in the workplace.
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Political representation
In the past, Catholics in Northern Ireland have faced discrimination and a lack of political representation. In 1704, Catholics were excluded from political rights, and by the 1860s, they owned less than 10% of the land. During the 18th century, Protestants established political and economic power as landlords, and organisations like the Orange Order were set up to defend Protestants against Catholics.
Even after Catholics were granted political representation in 1829, they continued to face discrimination. In the early 20th century, the Protestant-dominated unionist government in Northern Ireland redrew electoral boundaries to favour their supporters and abolished proportional representation, leading to control of areas where they were a minority. This resulted in limited representation for Catholics, who had larger families and were more likely to include unemployed adult children.
The allocation of public housing, appointments to public service jobs, and government investment in neighbourhoods were also sources of contention, with Catholics arguing they were discriminated against. The police force, the RUC, was almost exclusively Protestant, and Catholics were more likely to be subjected to police harassment.
Employment was another area of concern, with Catholics historically being more likely to be unemployed and facing under-representation in certain sectors and at senior levels of the public sector.
However, there have been efforts to address these issues. The Good Friday Agreement of 1998 restored self-government to Northern Ireland on the basis of "power-sharing", and reforms were made to the police force, including a requirement to recruit a 50% quota of Catholics for ten years.
Despite these efforts, the legacy of discrimination and the ongoing segregation between Catholics and Protestants in Northern Ireland continue to shape political representation and social dynamics in the region.
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Inter-communal violence
Northern Ireland's history has been marred by violence and conflict, known as the Troubles, which were deeply rooted in religion, ethnicity, and politics. The conflict centred around whether Northern Ireland would remain a part of the United Kingdom or unite with the Republic of Ireland. This divide was not based on theological differences but rather cultural and political affiliations.
Catholics, who identified as pro-Irish and nationalist, sought to unite with the Republic of Ireland, while Protestants, identifying as pro-British and unionist, vehemently opposed leaving the United Kingdom. These differences escalated into violence and terrorism, with bombings, shootings, and assassinations becoming commonplace. Paramilitary groups from both communities were responsible for much of the violence, and the conflict even spilled over into the Republic of Ireland and England.
During the Troubles, inter-communal violence and tensions forced people to move from mixed areas into neighbourhoods exclusively inhabited by one denomination, increasing segregation. This self-segregation was also influenced by widespread discrimination in employment, with senior positions in the public sector and the best jobs often going to Protestants. A 1987 survey found that 80% of the workforces were described as consisting of a majority of one denomination, and 20% were overwhelmingly uni-denominational.
The British government has since introduced laws and regulations to prohibit religious discrimination in Northern Ireland, and the level of segregation in the workplace has decreased. However, the legacy of the Troubles has left a deep impact, and communities continue to live separately, clashing over political and cultural issues. Northern Ireland now has more peace walls than during the Troubles, and surveys show that fewer people believe that Catholic-Protestant relations are improving.
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Frequently asked questions
Yes, Catholics have been treated unfairly in Northern Ireland. Historically, employment in Northern Ireland was highly segregated in favour of Protestants, particularly in senior roles in the public sector. The best jobs were given to Protestants, and while the local economy provided work for Catholics, they were disproportionately affected by emigration to seek employment. The British government has since introduced laws and regulations to prohibit discrimination on religious grounds.
Segregation in Northern Ireland has resulted in Catholics and Protestants leading largely separate lives. This is evident in the education system, where most state schools are predominantly Protestant, while the majority of Catholic children attend schools maintained by the Catholic Church. In addition, public housing is overwhelmingly segregated, with communal tensions forcing people to move from mixed areas into areas inhabited exclusively by one denomination.
The divide between Catholics and Protestants in Northern Ireland has had significant political implications. Catholics generally identify as pro-Irish and nationalist, seeking to unite Northern Ireland with the Republic of Ireland. On the other hand, Protestants largely identify as pro-British and unionist, opposing any separation from the United Kingdom. These disagreements have erupted into violence and terrorism, with bombings, shootings, and assassinations plaguing Northern Ireland for decades.
Efforts to improve relations between Catholics and Protestants in Northern Ireland have included the establishment of integrated, non-denominational schools. While still relatively rare, these schools aim to provide a neutral educational environment. Additionally, both the Catholic Church and Protestant denominations have supported cross-community school projects, such as joint field trips and forums, to encourage dialogue and understanding between pupils from different backgrounds.
